What is deduction - the advantages and disadvantages of the method. Deduction and the deductive method

It is necessary to distinguish between the method of induction and deduction used in economics. There are also differences between objective logic, the history of development, and methods of cognition.

Types of knowledge

Objectively- logical thinking presupposes a general line, an example is the transition of society from one formation to another.

The objective-historical method is a concrete manifestation of a certain pattern in the infinite variety of its individual manifestations and features. In society, as an example, we can use the connection of individual destinies with real story countries.

Methods

These types of knowledge are analyzed by two methods: logical and historical. Any phenomenon can be understood and explained only in its historical development. In order to understand an object, it is necessary to reflect the history of its appearance. Without an idea of the development path, it is difficult to understand the final result. History proceeds in zigzags and leaps; in order to ensure that the sequence is not interrupted during its analysis, a variant of logical research is necessary. To study history you need:

analysis;
synthesis;
induction;
deduction;
analogy.

Logical thinking involves generalized reflection historical development, explains its importance. This method often means a certain state of the object being studied at a specific time interval. This depends on many factors, but the objectives of the study, as well as the nature of the object, are decisive. Thus, to discover his law, I. Kempler did not study the history of the planets.

Research methodology

Induction and deduction are distinguished as separate research methods. Let's analyze the features of each of them and try to identify character traits. What is the difference between induction and deduction? Induction is a process of separation based on general provisions private (single) facts. There is a division of it into two parts: incomplete and complete. The second is characterized by conclusions or judgments about objects based on information about the entire set. In practice, both induction and deduction are used; the choice depends on the specific situation. The use of incomplete induction is considered a common occurrence. In this case, conclusions about the object being studied are made on the basis of partial information about the subject. Reliable information can be obtained from experimental studies conducted repeatedly.

Application in modern times

Induction and deduction are still widely used today. Deduction involves reasoning from the general to the individual (particular). All conclusions that are obtained in the course of such reasoning are reliable only if the correct methods have been chosen for analysis. In human thinking, induction and deduction are closely interrelated. Examples of such unity allow a person to analyze current events, look for the right ways permissions problematic situation. Induction directs human thought to the conclusion of empirically verifiable consequences from general hypotheses, their experimental confirmation or refutation. An experiment is characterized by a scientifically staged experiment conducted to study the phenomenon caused by it. The researcher works at certain conditions, monitors the results obtained, using a variety of instruments and materials, directs him in the right direction.

Examples

What is the difference between induction and deduction? Examples of the use of these methods can be found in any field of activity. modern man. When considering the deductive method of thinking as an example, the image of the legendary detective Sherlock Holmes immediately appears. This technique is associated with logic, analysis of many details, and decision-making based on the information received.

Research in Economics

Induction and deduction in economics are commonplace. Thanks to these methods, all analytical and statistical research, are accepted concrete solutions. For example, through deduction, economists study consumer demand for mortgage lending. The results obtained during the research are analyzed, the overall result is derived, and on its basis a decision is made to modernize the offer for this type of lending for the population. Economic research carried out according to a certain algorithm. First, a research object is selected, which will become the basis for the work of statisticians. Next, a hypothesis is put forward; the final result of the study largely depends on the correctness of its formulation. In order to obtain reliable information, methods are selected and an algorithm of actions is created. The results are considered reliable only if the experiments are carried out not 1-2 times, but in several series of 2-3 studies.

Conclusion

We analyzed such important terms like induction and deduction. Examples from different areas of human activity confirm the advisability of using two methods at once. For example, modern pedagogy is based on deductive methods. Before offering certain banking products to borrowers, they are carefully analyzed by specialists and all possible consequences their appearance on the market. What exactly to choose: deduction or induction, professionals decide taking into account the specific situation. Deduction allows you to draw conclusions in which errors are practically eliminated. It is this technique that psychologists recommend that people study in order to protect themselves from constant stress and to seek strength to deal with complex problems.

Logical conclusions often become the subject of philosophical reflection, especially when we're talking about about epistemology. This happened with such types of cognition as induction and deduction. Both of these methods are a means of obtaining information and new knowledge. Philosophers simply understand by induction the logical transition from the particular to the general, and by deduction the art of drawing conclusions from theoretical positions. However, do not assume that both of these methods are opposites.

Of course, when Francis Bacon said his famous phrase that knowledge is power, he had in mind the power of induction. But the second method should not be underestimated. IN modern understanding Deduction is more of a control character and helps to verify hypotheses obtained through induction.

What is the difference?

The method of deduction and induction in philosophy is associated with logic, but we are talking about two different types conclusions. When we go from one premise to another, and then to conclusions, the truth of the latter depends on the correctness of our initial foundations. This is what deduction looks like. It is based on the clarity and necessity of logical laws. If we are talking about induction, then in this case inferences first come from facts - material, psychological, legal, and so on. Such conclusions are less formal in nature than deductive ones. Therefore, the connections between the facts that follow from these conclusions are probabilistic (or hypothetical). They need further testing and verification.

How did the concept of “induction” appear in philosophy?

The English thinker Francis Bacon, analyzing the state of contemporary science, considered it deplorable due to the lack of the necessary method. He proposed it in his work "New Organon" to replace the rules of logic proposed by Aristotle. Bacon believed that there were four obstacles on the path of knowledge, which he called idols. These are admixtures with the knowledge of human nature, individual subjectivity, incorrect terminology and false ideas emanating from axioms or authorities of the past. From the point of view of the English scientist, real knowledge can only stem from the generalization of sensory experience. This is how induction appeared in philosophy.

Examples of its application are given by the same Francis Bacon. If we observe lilacs every year and see that they are white, it means that in this garden all these trees bloom in only one color. That is, our conclusions are based on the assumption that if an experiment gives us such and such data, then this will happen in all similar cases.

Why is the one-sided method dangerous?

Conclusions in inductive reasoning can be erroneous. And if we constantly rely on them and do not check them deductively, then we can move away from the real meaning of the connection between facts. But aren’t we guided in our lives - subconsciously and one-sidedly - only by inductive conclusions? For example, in given circumstances, we have always taken such and such an approach to solving a problem, and this has brought us success. This means that we will continue to act in this way without changing anything. But our experience is not facts, but just our idea of them. But often we treat our concepts as certain axioms. This leads to incorrect conclusions.

Why induction is imperfect

Although this method at one time looked very revolutionary, as we see, it cannot be based only on it. Now it's time to talk about what induction is - complete and incomplete induction. Philosophy offers us the following definitions.

Full induction is the ideal situation when we are dealing with a certain number special cases that exhaust everything possible options. This means that we have collected all the facts, made sure that their number is finite, and on this basis we prove our statement. Incomplete induction is much more common. From observing individual facts, we draw some hypothetical conclusions. But since we do not know whether all particular cases will have the same result, we must understand that our conclusion is only probabilistic in nature and needs to be verified. That is why we should constantly evaluate our experience critically and supplement it with new information.

Model that limits cognition

Induction in philosophy is the deliberate simplification of complex structures to create an understandable picture of the world. When we observe different phenomena, we generalize them. From this we draw conclusions about the connections between phenomena and put them together into a single picture. It allows us to make choices and set priorities, to determine what is important to us and what is not. But if we lose control over the situation and begin to replace facts with our own opinion about them, then we will inevitably begin to adjust everything we see to suit ourselves. Thus, the presence of induction alone limits cognition. After all, as a rule, it is incomplete. Therefore, almost all universal generalizations made with its help imply the possibility of exceptions.

How to use induction

We need to understand that the use of this method alone replaces the diversity of the world with simplified models. This gives us a kind of weapon against the limitations that induction is fraught with in philosophy. This understanding is often justified by the thesis that there are no universal theories. Karl Popper also said that any concept can either be considered falsified and therefore should be rejected, or it has not yet been sufficiently tested and therefore we have not yet proven that it is incorrect.

Another thinker, Nassim Taleb, reinforces this argument by noting that any large number of white swans does not give us the right to claim that all these birds are the same color. Why? But because one black swan is enough to smash your conclusions to smithereens. Induction thus helps us generalize information, but it also creates stereotypes in our brains. They are also needed, but we can use them until at least one fact appears that refutes our conclusion. And when we see this, we should not adjust it to fit our theory, but look for a new concept.

Deduction

Let us now consider the second method of cognition, its pros and cons. The word “deduction” itself means deduction, logical connection. This is a transition from broad knowledge to specific information. If induction in philosophy is the receipt of general judgments based on empirical knowledge, then deduction comes from information and connections between facts that are already proven, that is, existing. This means that it has a higher degree of reliability. Therefore, it is often used to prove mathematical theorems. The founder of deduction is Aristotle, who described this method as a chain of inferences, also called syllogistics, where the conclusion is obtained from the premises according to clear formal rules.

Deduction and Induction - Bacon vs. Aristotle

In the history of philosophy, these two methods of cognition have been constantly opposed. Aristotle, by the way, was the first to describe induction, but called it dialectics. He stated that the conclusions obtained in this way were the opposite of the analytical ones. Bacon, as we have already seen, preferred induction. He developed several rules for obtaining knowledge using this method. Cause-and-effect relationships between different phenomena, from his point of view, can be established by analogy of differences, similarities, residues, as well as the presence of accompanying changes. Absolutizing the role of experiment, Bacon stated that in philosophy, induction is a universal method of epistemology. As, in fact, in any science. However, eighteenth-century rationalism and the development of theoretical mathematics cast doubt on his conclusions.

Descartes and Leibniz

These philosophers from France and Germany restored their former interest in the deductive method. Descartes raised the question of certainty. He stated that mathematical axioms are obvious statements that do not require proof. Therefore, they are reliable. Therefore, if you follow the rules of logic, then the conclusions from them will also be true. Therefore, deduction will be a good scientific method if you follow a few simple rules. It is necessary to proceed only from what has been proven and tested, to break down the problem into its component parts, to move from simple to complex and not to be one-sided, but to check all the details.

Leibniz argued that deduction can be used in other branches of science. Even those studies that are carried out on the basis of experiments, he said, in the future will be carried out with a pencil in hand and using universal symbols. Deduction and induction thus divided scientists in the nineteenth century into two parties, who were supporters or opponents of one or the other method.

Modern epistemology

The ability to reason logically and base one's knowledge on facts rather than assumptions was valued not only in the past. It will always be useful in our world. Modern thinkers believe that in philosophy, induction is an argument based on the degree of probability. Its methods are applied depending on how suitable they are for solving the problem at hand.

IN practical life it looks like this. If you want to go to a hotel, you start looking at reviews about it and see that the hotel has a high rating. This is an inductive argument. But for final decision, you need to understand whether you have enough budget for such a vacation, whether you personally will like living there and how objective the assessments were. That is, you will need additional information.

Deduction is used in cases where the so-called validity criterion can be applied. For example, your vacation is possible only in September. Hotel with high rating closes in August, but the other hotel is open until October. The answer is obvious - you can only go on vacation to places where you can do it in the fall. This is how deduction is used not only in philosophy, but also in Everyday life.

Day after day, coming to all sorts of conclusions and conclusions, we use various methods knowledge: observation, experiment, induction, deduction, analogy, etc.

Method of induction and deduction

Any type of research is based on deductive and inductive methods. Induction (from Latin: guidance) is a transition from the particular to the general, and deduction (from Latin: deduction) is from the general to the particular. The inductive method approach begins with analysis and comparison of observational data, the repeated repetition of which usually leads to an inductive generalization. This approach is applicable in almost all areas of activity. For example, the reasoning of the court, on the basis of which it makes a decision, is a vivid example of inductive reasoning, because, based on several already known facts some kind of guess is created and if all new facts correspond to the assumption and are its consequence, then this assumption becomes true.

There are 2 types of induction:

when it is impossible to assume all cases, such induction is called incomplete;
when possible, which is very rare, complete.

Induction, in addition to the transition from the particular to the general, also includes analogy, purposeful justification, methods for establishing causal relationships, etc.

What is deduction and what is the method of deduction based on?

Deduction in our life is a special type of thinking, which, through logical conclusions, is based on isolating the particular from the general. Thus, the theory of deduction is a kind of chain of logical conclusions, the links of which are inextricably linked with each other and lead to an indisputable conclusion.

For example, the method of mathematical deduction for discovering truth is used to prove axioms in the natural sciences: physics, mathematics, etc. However, deduction has a broader meaning, since deductive thinking is the ability of a person to reason logically, and ultimately, come to an undeniable conclusion. Therefore, in addition to the sphere scientific activity The method of deductive thinking is very useful, including in many other types of activities.

In psychology, deductive theory studies the development and impairment of various deductive judgments. Conditioned by everyone mental processes, the movement of knowledge from more general to less general is analyzed by the structure of the thought process as a whole. Psychology studies deduction as a process of individual thinking and its formation in the process of personality development.

Of course, the most a shining example deduction is the thinking of the well-known literary hero Sherlock Holmes. He, taking as a basis the general (a crime with all participants in the event), gradually building logical chains of actions, motives of behavior, moves on to the particular (each person and the events associated with him), thereby establishing guilt or innocence in this crime. He uses logical conclusions to expose the criminal, giving undeniable evidence of his guilt. Thus, we can say that deduction is very useful for investigators, detectives, lawyers, etc.

However, deduction is also useful for any specific person, no matter what he does. For example, in everyday life it contributes to a better understanding of the people around us and building the necessary relationships with them; in studies – to understand the material being studied much faster and much better; and in work - to accept the most rational and right decisions, while calculating the actions and moves of employees and competitors several steps ahead. That is why every effort should be made to develop this method of thinking.

Deduction (Latin deductio - inference) is a method of thinking, the consequence of which is a logical conclusion, in which a particular conclusion is derived from the general. A chain of inferences (reasonings), where links (statements) are interconnected by logical conclusions.

The beginning (premises) of deduction are axioms or simply hypotheses that have the nature of general statements (“general”), and the end is the consequences of the premises, theorems (“particular”). If the premises of a deduction are true, then its consequences are true. Deduction is the main means of logical proof. The opposite of induction.

An example of the simplest deductive reasoning:

All people are mortal.
Socrates is a man.
Therefore, Socrates is mortal.

The method of deduction is opposed to the method of induction - when a conclusion is made on the basis of reasoning going from the particular to the general.

For example:

the Yenisei Irtysh and Lena rivers flow from south to north;
the Yenisei, Irtysh and Lena rivers are Siberian rivers;
therefore, all Siberian rivers flow from south to north.

Of course, these are simplified examples of deduction and induction. Conclusions must be based on experience, knowledge and specific facts. Otherwise, it would be impossible to avoid generalizations and draw erroneous conclusions. For example, “All men are deceivers, so you are also a deceiver.” Or “Vova is lazy, Tolik is lazy and Yura is lazy, which means all men are lazy.”

In everyday life, we use the simplest versions of deduction and induction without even realizing it. For example, when we see a disheveled man running headlong, we think that he is probably late for something. Or, looking out the window in the morning and noticing that the asphalt is strewn with wet leaves, we can assume that it rained at night and there was strong wind. We tell the child not to sit late on a weekday, because we assume that then he will sleep through school, not have breakfast, etc.

History of the method

The term “deduction” itself was apparently first used by Boethius (“Introduction to Categorical Syllogism”, 1492), the first systematic analysis of one of the varieties of deductive inferences - syllogistic inferences- was implemented by Aristotle in the First Analytics and significantly developed by his ancient and medieval followers. Deductive reasoning based on the properties of propositional logical connectives, were studied in the Stoic school and especially in detail in medieval logic.

The following important types of inferences were identified:

conditionally categorical (modus ponens, modus tollens)
dividing-categorical (modus tollendo ponens, modus ponendo tollens)
conditional disjunctive (lemmatic)

In the philosophy and logic of modern times, there were significant differences in views on the role of deduction among other methods of cognition. Thus, R. Descartes contrasted deduction with intuition, through which, in his opinion, human mind“directly perceives” the truth, while deduction provides the mind with only “mediated” (obtained through reasoning) knowledge.

F. Bacon, and later other English “inductivist logicians” (W. Whewell, J. St. Mill, A. Bain and others), especially noting that the conclusion obtained through deduction does not contain any “information” that would not be contained in the premises, they considered, on this basis, deduction a “secondary” method, while true knowledge, in their opinion, is provided only by induction. In this sense, deductively correct reasoning was considered from an information-theoretic point of view as reasoning whose premises contain all the information contained in its conclusion. Based on this, not a single deductively correct reasoning leads to the acquisition of new information - it just makes explicit the implicit content of its premises.

In turn, representatives of the direction coming primarily from German philosophy(Chr. Wolf, G.V. Leibniz), also, based on the fact that deduction does not provide new information, it was on this basis that they came to the exact opposite conclusion: knowledge obtained through deduction is “true in all possible worlds,” which is what their “enduring” value is determined, in contrast to “factual” truths obtained by inductive generalization of observational and experience data, which are true “only due to a coincidence of circumstances.” WITH modern point From our point of view, the question of such advantages of deduction or induction has largely lost its meaning. Along with this, the question of the source of confidence in the truth of a deductively correct conclusion based on the truth of its premises is of certain philosophical interest. Currently, it is generally accepted that this source is the meaning of the logical terms included in the reasoning; thus, deductively correct reasoning turns out to be “analytically correct.”

Important Terms

Deductive reasoning- an inference that ensures, given the truth of the premises and compliance with the rules of logic, the truth of the conclusion. In such cases, deductive reasoning is treated as a simple case of proof or some step of proof.

Deductive proof- one of the forms of proof when a thesis, which is some kind of individual or private judgment, is brought under general rule. The essence of such proof is as follows: you must obtain the consent of your interlocutor that the general rule under which a given individual or particular fact fits is true. When this is achieved, then this rule applies to the thesis being proven.

Deductive logic- a branch of logic in which methods of reasoning are studied that guarantee the truth of the conclusion when the premises are true. Deductive logic is sometimes identified with formal logic. Outside the limits of deductive logic are the so-called. plausible reasoning and inductive methods. It explores ways of reasoning with standard, typical statements; These methods are formalized in the form of logical systems, or calculi. Historically, the first system of deductive logic was Aristotle's syllogistic.

How can deduction be applied in practice?

Judging by the way Sherlock Holmes unravels detective stories using the deductive method, it can be adopted by investigators, lawyers, and law enforcement officers. However, mastery of the deductive method will be useful in any field of activity: students will be able to quickly understand and remember the material better, managers or doctors will be able to make the only correct decision, etc.

There is probably no area of human life where deductive method would not have done any service. With its help, you can draw conclusions about the people around you, which is important when building relationships with them. It develops observation, logical thinking, memory and simply makes you think, preventing the brain from aging ahead of time. After all, our brain needs training no less than our muscles.

Attention to details

As you observe people and everyday situations, notice the smallest cues in conversations to become more responsive to events. These skills became the trademarks of Sherlock Holmes, as well as the heroes of the TV series True Detective and The Mentalist. New Yorker columnist and psychologist Maria Konnikova, author of Mastermind: How to Think Like Sherlock Holmes, says Holmes's thinking technique is based on two simple things– observation and deduction. Most of us do not pay attention to the details around us, but in the meantime, outstanding (fictional and real) detectives have a habit of noticing everything down to the smallest detail.

How to train yourself to be more attentive and focused?

First, stop multitasking and focus on one thing at a time. The more things you do at once, the more prone you are to making mistakes and the more likely you are to miss things. important information. It is also less likely that the information will be retained in your memory.
Secondly, it is necessary to achieve the right emotional state. Anxiety, sadness, anger and others negative emotions, which are processed in the amygdala, impair the brain's ability to solve problems or absorb information. Positive emotions On the contrary, they improve this brain function and even help you think more creatively and strategically.

Develop memory

Having tuned in to the right mood, you should strain your memory to begin to put everything you observe there. There are many methods for training it. Basically, it all comes down to learning to attach significance to individual details, for example, the brands of cars parked near the house and their license plate numbers. At first you will have to force yourself to remember them, but over time it will become a habit and you will memorize the cars automatically. The main thing when forming a new habit is to work on yourself every day.

Play more often Memory" and others Board games Developing memory. Set yourself the task of remembering as many objects as possible in random photos. For example, try to remember as many objects from photographs as possible in 15 seconds.

Memory competition champion and author of Einstein Walks on the Moon, a book about how memory works, Joshua Foer explains that anyone with average memory ability can greatly improve their memory abilities. Like Sherlock Holmes, Foer is able to remember hundreds of phone numbers at a time, thanks to the encoding of knowledge in visual pictures.

His method is to use spatial memory to structure and store information that is relatively difficult to remember. So numbers can be turned into words and, accordingly, into images, which in turn will take a place in the memory palace. For example, 0 could be a wheel, a ring, or a sun; 1 – a post, a pencil, an arrow or even a phallus (vulgar images are remembered especially well, writes Foer); 2 – a snake, a swan, etc. Then you imagine some space that is familiar to you, for example, your apartment (it will be your “memory palace”), in which there is a wheel at the entrance, a pencil on the bedside table nearby, and behind her is a porcelain swan. This way you can remember the sequence "012".

Maintaining"field notes"

As you begin your transformation into Sherlock, start keeping a diary with notes. As the Times columnist writes, scientists train their attention in this way - by writing down explanations and recording sketches of what they observe. Michael Canfield, a Harvard University entomologist and author of Field Notes on Science and Nature, says this habit "will force you to make better decisions about what's really important and what's not."

Taking field notes, whether during a regular work meeting or a walk in a city park, will develop the right approach to exploring the environment. Over time, you begin to pay attention to small details in any situation, and the more you do this on paper, the faster you will develop the habit of analyzing things as you go.

Focus attention through meditation

Many studies confirm that meditation improves concentration and attention. You should start practicing with a few minutes in the morning and a few minutes before bed. According to John Assaraf, lecturer and renowned business consultant, “Meditation is what gives you control over your brain waves. Meditation trains your brain so you can focus on your goals."

Meditation can make a person better equipped to obtain answers to questions of interest. All this is achieved by developing the ability to modulate and regulate different frequencies of brain waves, which Assaraf compares to the four speeds in a car transmission: “beta” is the first, “alpha” is the second, “theta” is the third and “ delta waves" - from the fourth. Most of us function in the beta range during the day, and that's not a terribly bad thing. However, what is first gear? The wheels spin slowly, and the engine wears quite a lot. People also burn out faster and experience more stress and illness. Therefore, it is worth learning how to switch to other gears in order to reduce wear and the amount of “fuel” consumed.

Find a quiet place where there will be no distractions. Be fully aware of what is happening and watch the thoughts that arise in your head, concentrate on your breathing. Take slow, deep breaths, feeling the air flow from your nostrils to your lungs.

Think critically and ask questions

Once you learn to pay close attention to detail, begin to transform your observations into theories or ideas. If you have two or three puzzle pieces, try to understand how they fit together. The more puzzle pieces you have, the easier it will be to draw conclusions and see the whole picture. Try to derive specific provisions from general ones in a logical way. This is called deduction. Remember to apply critical thinking to everything you see. Use critical thinking to analyze what you observe closely, and use deduction to build a big picture from those facts. Describe in a few sentences how to develop your ability to critical thinking

, not so simple. The first step to this skill is to return to childhood curiosity and the desire to ask as many questions as possible.

Konnikova says the following about this: “It is important to learn to think critically. So, when acquiring new information or knowledge about something new, you will not just memorize and remember something, but learn to analyze it. Ask yourself: “Why is this so important?”; “How can I combine this with the things I already know?” or “Why do I want to remember this?” Questions like these train your brain and organize information into a network of knowledge.”

Let your imagination run wild ordinary people they simply ignore it. But one of the key foundations of this exemplary deduction is nonlinear thinking. Sometimes it’s worth giving free rein to your imagination to replay the most fantastic scenarios in your head and go through all possible connections.

Sherlock Holmes often sought solitude to think and freely explore a problem from all sides. Like Albert Einstein, Holmes played the violin to help him relax. While his hands were busy playing, his mind was immersed in a meticulous search for new ideas and problem solving. Holmes even mentions at one point that imagination is the mother of truth. By detaching himself from reality, he could look at his ideas in a completely new way.

Expand your horizons

It is obvious that an important advantage of Sherlock Holmes is his broad outlook and erudition. If you can also easily understand the works of Renaissance artists, the latest trends in the cryptocurrency market, and discoveries in the most advanced theories of quantum physics, your deductive methods of thinking have a much greater chance of success. You should not place yourself within the framework of any narrow specialization. Strive for knowledge and cultivate a sense of curiosity about a wide variety of things and areas.

Conclusions: exercises for developing deduction

Deduction cannot be acquired without systematic training. Below is a list of effective and simple methods on the development of deductive thinking.

Solving problems in the fields of mathematics, chemistry and physics. The process of solving such problems increases intellectual abilities and contributes to the development of such thinking.
Expanding your horizons. Deepen your knowledge in various scientific, cultural and historical fields. This will not only allow you to develop different sides personality, but will also help to accumulate experience, and not rely on superficial knowledge and guesswork. In this case, various encyclopedias, trips to museums, documentaries and, of course, travel.
Pedantry. The ability to thoroughly study an object of interest to you allows you to comprehensively and thoroughly gain a complete understanding. It is important that this object evokes a response in the emotional spectrum, then the result will be effective.
Flexibility of mind. When solving a task or problem, it is necessary to use different approaches. For selection optimal option, it is recommended to listen to the opinions of others, thoroughly considering their versions. Personal experience and knowledge combined with outside information, as well as the presence of several options for solving the issue, will help you choose the most optimal conclusion.
Observation. When communicating with people, it is recommended not only to hear what they say, but also to observe their facial expressions, gestures, voice and intonation. Thus, one can recognize whether a person is sincere or not, what his intentions are, etc.

Depending on whether there is a connection between the premises and the conclusion of the inference logical consequence, There are two types of inferences: deductive and inductive.

In a deductive inference, the connection between premises and conclusion is based on a logical law, due to which the conclusion follows with logical necessity from the accepted premises,

The conclusion of a deductive inference cannot contain information that is not contained in its premises. All correct inferences considered so far were classified as deductive. Each of them was based on one or another logical law.

In inductive inference, the connection between premises and conclusion is not based on a logical law, and the conclusion follows from the accepted premises not with logical necessity, but only with some probability.

Inductive inference is based not on logical, but on some factual or psychological grounds. In such an inference, the conclusion does not follow logically from the premises and may contain information not contained in them. The reliability of the premises does not therefore mean the reliability of the inductive statement derived from them. Inductive inference produces only probable, or plausible, conclusions that require further testing.

So, deduction is the derivation of conclusions that are as reliable as the accepted premises, induction is the derivation of probable (plausible, problematic) conclusions.

Examples of deductive reasoning:

If a person is a lawyer, he has a higher legal education.

The man is a lawyer.

This person has a higher legal education.

Every contract is a transaction.

Every transaction is aimed at establishing, changing or terminating civil rights and obligations.

Every contract is aimed at establishing, changing or terminating civil rights and responsibilities.

The line separating the premises from the conclusion replaces, as usual, the word “therefore”.

The premises of both the first and second deductive inferences are true. This means that their conclusions must also be true.

Examples of inductive reasoning:

Canada is a republic

USA is a republic

Canada and the USA are North American countries.

All North American states are republics.

Italy is a republic;

Portugal is a republic;

Finland is a republic;

France is a republic.

Italy, Portugal, Finland, France are Western European countries.

All Western European countries are republics

The premises of both the first and second inductive inferences are true, but the conclusion of the first is true and the second is false. Indeed, all North American states are republics; But Among Western European countries there are not only republics, but also monarchies, for example England, Belgium and Spain.

Induction can lead from true premises to either a true or a false conclusion. Unlike deduction, which is based on the logical law, it does not guarantee obtaining a true conclusion from true premises. The conclusion of any inductive inference is always only conjectural or probable.

Emphasizing this difference between deduction and induction, it is sometimes said that deduction is demonstrative, demonstrative inference, while induction is non-demonstrative, plausible reasoning. Inductively obtained assumptions (hypotheses) always require further research and justification.

Characteristic, deductions are logical transitions from general knowledge to particular ones. In all cases where it is necessary to consider some kind of phenomenon based on what is already known general principle and to draw the necessary conclusion regarding it, we conclude in the form of deduction. For example:

All judges perform their duties on a professional basis.

Ivanov - judge.

Consequently, Ivanov performs his duties on a professional basis.

A typical example of inductive reasoning is generalizations, i.e. transitions from individual or particular knowledge to general knowledge.

“All bodies with mass are attracted to each other.” “All crimes are committed by those who benefit from it” are typical inductive generalizations. Having summed up his observations of some bodies with mass, I. Newton expressed the idea of a universal law of attraction, which also applies to those objects that have never been observed by anyone. Lawyers who analyzed various kinds crimes, gradually came to the conclusion that crimes are committed, as a rule, by those who benefit from it in one way or another.

Reasoning leading from knowledge about some objects to general knowledge about all objects is typical induction, since there is always the possibility that the generalization will turn out to be hasty and unfounded. For example:

Freedom of thought and conscience is one of the basic personal rights of a person.

Freedom of movement and settlement is one of the basic personal rights of a person.

This means that any freedom is one of the basic personal rights of a person.

The premises of this argument are true, but the conclusion is false, since human rights include not only personal, but also political, social, economic, cultural, and economic rights. Freedom of assembly refers, in particular, to the fundamental political rights of citizens, and freedom of labor refers to socio-economic and cultural rights.

One cannot identify, as is sometimes done, any deduction with the transition from the general to the particular, and induction with the transition from the particular to the general. Conclusion: “A supply contract has been concluded. Therefore, it is not true that such an agreement has not been concluded” is deductive, but there is no transition from the general to the particular. The inference “If we go to the cinema tomorrow or go to the theater, then we will go to the cinema tomorrow” is inductive, but there is no transition from the general to the specific.

Inductive inferences include not only generalizations, but also likenings, or analogies, conclusions about the causes of phenomena

etc. These types of induction will be discussed further. For now, it is enough to emphasize that induction is not only a transition from the particular to the general, but in general any transition from reliable knowledge to problematic.

The problem of induction. From ordinary life and from the experience of scientific observations, we know well that there is a certain repeatability of states and events in the world. Night always follows day. The seasons repeat in the same order. Ice always feels cold, but flame always burns. Objects fall when we drop them, etc.

The most important regular, permanent connections studied by science are called scientific laws.

The law establishes sustainable And repetitive attitude between phenomena necessary And significant connection.

Theoretical and practical value laws is obvious. They are the basis scientific explanations and predictions and thereby form the foundation for understanding the world around us and its purposeful transformation. Every law is general, universal approval. He says that in any particular case, in any place and at any time, if one situation takes place, then another situation also takes place.

“If a body has mass, it experiences gravitational influences” is a physical law that applies always and everywhere. Even light is no exception.

Every law is based on final number of observations. But it extends to infinite number possible cases. Based on individual and limited facts, the scientist establishes a general, universal principle.

The problem of induction- this is the problem of transition from knowledge about individual objects of the class under study to knowledge about all objects of this class.

Almost all general statements, including scientific laws, are the results of inductive generalization. In this sense, induction is the basis of all our knowledge. In itself, it does not guarantee its truth, but it gives rise to assumptions, connects them with experience and thereby gives them a certain verisimilitude, a more or less high degree of probability. Experience is the source and foundation of human knowledge. Induction, starting from what is comprehended in experience, is a necessary means of its generalization and systematization.

The special interest shown in deductive reasoning is understandable. They allow us to obtain new truths from existing knowledge, and moreover, with the help of pure reasoning, without resorting to experience, intuition, etc. Deduction gives an absolute guarantee of success, and does not simply provide one or another, perhaps high, probability of a true conclusion. Starting from true premises and reasoning deductively, we are sure to obtain reliable knowledge in all cases.

While emphasizing the importance of deduction in the process of developing and substantiating our knowledge, we should not, however, separate it from induction and underestimate the latter. Induction, based on what is comprehended in experience, is a necessary means of its generalization and systematization.