What is sound composition? Euphony (sound composition of poetic speech)

The norm determines which sounds are included in a given word. Violation of the norm in this case looks like replacing one sound with another.

Change of hard and soft consonants

Most often, the norms for the use of hard and soft consonants are violated before the vowel sound [e]. Originally in the Russian language, only soft consonants were pronounced before this vowel. But the appearance of borrowed words, and in the twentieth century, abbreviations led to the fact that hard consonants began to be pronounced before [e]: mayor, peer, sir, thermal power station, hydroelectric power station.

There would be no violation of the norm if our spelling had fixed the strict use of the letter E after paired soft consonants (mera) and the letter E after paired hard consonants (mayor). However, this did not happen. In borrowed words, as a rule, the letter E is used: thesis, stand, technique. Therefore, you just have to remember that in some cases this letter denotes the vowel [e] and the softness of the preceding consonant - [t'e]khnika, and in others - only the vowel [e] - [stent].

And again, one could strain oneself and memorize the pronunciation of these words, but the problem is that the language continues to have a tendency to soften paired consonants before [e]: more than once it was heard on the radio [g'es] - GES, what can we say about [t' empa] and [t'ermas].

As a result, the pronunciation rate of individual words fluctuates. For example, the pronunciation [ses]siya today coexists with the variant [s’e]ssiya, and a few years ago the obligatory soft prog[r’e]ss today already coexists with the hard prog[re]ss.

Thus, there are fluctuations in the norm. And where there are such fluctuations, violations also arise when something that should be pronounced firmly is softened, and, on the contrary, something that should be softened is pronounced firmly:

The task is not to lose the accumulated [t’e]mps. - Norm: [te]mpy;

This is not a completely correct [t’e]sis. - Norma: [te]sis;

This ironic [d't'ie']active reflected the phantasmagoria of our life. - Norma: [dete]active.

Since softening consonants before the sound Ge] is a trend in modern language, such a pronunciation seems acceptable and in some cases does not cause an immediate negative reaction. It seems that no one today will vigorously protest against [t'e]mp or [t'e]rmos, although the pronunciation [t'est] instead of [test] or computer[t'j]r instead of computer[tar] is still still perceived as unusual. But, let us repeat, our leniency is due precisely to the fact that many of these words are destined to have a normative soft pronunciation of the consonant before [e].

The reverse exchange is a completely different matter:

The windows are boarded up; This is a very competent leader; Aromas treat many illnesses and tastes with other methods give good results (in the latter case the norm is: ailments, tastes).

This pronunciation looks mannered, so “cultured-cultured.” It is called hypercorrect, while the speakers “do not know where the boundaries of the pattern are, and overdo it in their adherence to it” [Panov 1990: 18]. At the same time, as has already been seen in the case of prog[r'e]ss - prog[re]ss, a firm pronunciation can be fixed by the norm. For example, dictionaries now allow the pronunciation fl[ne]l, although previously only the soft fl[n'e]l was approved. But the pronunciation shi[nel]l is still undesirable.

These vagaries of a living language make this phenomenon complex, so the “language service” in the editorial office can only monitor the live broadcast and dictionaries and record stable and fluctuating norms so that they can make recommendations to journalists and make amendments to the edited materials.

All other cases of non-normative exchange of hard and soft consonants are much less common, and most importantly, they represent a much more flagrant violation of the norm than the phenomenon considered.

Under the influence of the analogy with the forms “to charge”, “to collect”, the pronunciation “to collect” arises (norm: to collect): They are engaged in employment, but without collecting payment for this service (another error in this statement, which can be corrected as follows: “payment for the service "or "fee for services", the latter is better here).

Under the influence of writing or as a result of dialectal influence, softness [t’] is transmitted in the infinitive of reflexive verbs: Patients can call [t’] on this phone. Compare also the strange contaminated form: I think Golovanov succeeded[s't's'ъ] to defend this law (contamination occurred, that is, a mixture of two forms: the future tense “succeed” and the infinitive “succeed”, in which [t'] is pronounced softly for the reasons stated above).

In one of the programs of the Sverdlovsk Regional Radio, both the journalist and his hero said this: In the store there are [r'e]zockets, salt, matches. It is clear that the soft consonant [r’] was pronounced, and after it, instead of [o], the sound [e] naturally appears. We are considering this case, firstly, because two people speak this way, and secondly, because the author, from childhood, heard in the Ural dialect speech the word “resetochka” (a type of utensil, socket), so we are not dealing with an individual defect, but with the influence of local pronunciation.

Change of voiceless and voiced consonants

Rarely, but there is a non-normative exchange of voiceless and voiced consonants: It is not political dividends that force the director to make such a statement (apparently, the analogy with forms such as “compliments”, “subscriptions” influences this).

Other consonant exchanges

Very often one observes the pronunciation of the verbs “ease”, “soften” not with the combination [khch], as required by the norm (from “light”, “soft”, where [khk] is pronounced), but with the combination [kch], apparently under the influence letters: This director does not think about making life easier for the viewer.

From time to time, the pronunciation of the pronoun “something” with the combination [pcs] is recorded: Entrepreneurs are driven by something else. The speaker in this case puts this pronoun in the series “what”, “nothing”, in which according to the norm it is necessary to pronounce [pcs] (but: not[that]o).

The exchange of consonants is sometimes observed in the word “post office”: The communists, as usual, will go to the square from the post office. - The final consonant changes as a result of assimilation: it becomes similar to the previous one in place of formation (instead of the combination “labial + dental”, the combination “labial + labial” appears).

Changing vowel sounds under stress

The sound composition of a word can also be disrupted due to the change in vowel sounds. Under stress, the sounds [e] and [o] are often incorrectly used after paired soft consonants and after hissing consonants. It is well known to pronounce “scam”, “guardianship”, “ours”, “nobody’s”, instead of “scam”, “guardianship”, “own”, “draws”.

Since the 12th century. and approximately until the XV-XVI centuries. in the Russian language there was a phonetic law of the transition of the sound [e] into the sound [o] under stress after a soft consonant before a hard consonant: [n’es] -> [n’os]. In some cases there was no transition. If the sound [e] developed in place of the sound, we will designate it conventionally as “yat”, we still pronounce [e] under stress after a soft consonant before a hard one: forest, bread, chalk, no, white, light, business, etc. There was also no transition if the word was borrowed from the Old Church Slavonic language or if the pronunciation of the word was influenced by the Church Slavonic language: captivity, hope, clothes, before, cross, sky, finger, etc. [See: Ivanov 1964: 189-197].

As we can see, it has long been the case in the language that in the same position in some words the sound [e] was pronounced, and in others - [o]: “bread”, but “honey”, “chalk”, but “chalk” , "sky", but "palate". The situation became even more confusing when borrowings appeared in the Russian language, in which in the same position it was necessary to choose [e] or [o] in accordance with the source language: a[f’e]ra from French. аffаige "business" [affe"r]; ma[n'o]vre from French manœvre [manövre]; grena[d'e]r from French grenadier [grenadier"]; o[p’e]ka from Polish. orieka [guardianship].

In modern Russian, there are no internal grounds for distinguishing which word should be pronounced [o] in a given position, and which [e]. Only tradition, language skills, dictionary instructions. And in such conditions only. in the center of the field of these words, the norm is strictly observed. Indeed, no one says: “bring me a piece of chalk or bread,” “buy a jar of [m’e]da.” But on the periphery of the group, fluctuations arise constantly, especially since a number of factors contribute to this.

Firstly, we have not adopted the consistent use of the letter E. If we always read and always wrote “maneuvers”, “whitish”, “faded”, “bile” and next to “guardianship”, “scam”, “grenadier”, We would also be consistent in pronunciation.

Secondly, changing these sounds in most cases does not affect the distinction of meaning. Whether we say “maneuver” or “maneuver”, “guardianship” or “guardianship”, our interlocutor will understand the statement without any difficulty. At one time, the film “The Scam” was shown on screens. All over Yekaterinburg there were posters on which “Scam” was written in huge letters. It's safe to say that not a single person thought this was anything other than a good old "scam."

Thirdly, word formation and inflection constantly collide these sounds in a given position and create traps for our memory: we need to say “dead”, but “dead”, “ procession", but "godfather", "godmother". In the declension of pronouns, the influence of the hard version of the declension on the soft version has long existed and still exists in dialects, therefore the pronunciation of “all”, “yours”, “whose” (as “that”, “which”) is quite in the spirit of the language [See: Ivanov 1964 : 335-336].

Considering all that has been said, one may wonder: why break spears? If this phenomenon has almost no effect on the distinction of meaning, if some normatively established cases even contradict the linguistic tendency, then is there any need to worry, let everyone speak as he wants? But this “let” contradict the principles of the functioning of the literary language, which has a fixed, culturally fixed norm. This is where the culture of speech, our aesthetic sense, comes into play. Here are a few cases that are rejected not only by the norm, but also by our aesthetic perception of language. We agree that it’s simply ugly to say like this:

The drainage [zhe] forehead served as a ladder for the arsonists; The theater invites you to the premiere of a sparkling operetta; There are such surges in the economy; By interring the remains of those killed, we atone for the guilt of our ancestors; The snow is falling like a dead block.

And it would be good to remember that you need to say “golo[v’e]shka”, “o[s’e]dly” and that the pronunciation “underdou[m’e]ny” is still preferable.

Changing unstressed vowels

The normative sound composition of a word can also be violated due to unstressed vowels. We will consider the following cases.

1. Let us first give examples:

We provide the telephone number of the Pervouralsk checkpoint; Famous action films will be shown; A festival is being held in honor of the 150th anniversary of the birth of Rimsky-Korsakov.

This case stands, as it were, on the border between this and the previous sections of the presentation. The speaker perceives the highlighted positions as unstressed and therefore pronounces in place [o] a sound close to [a]. According to the norm, additional stress falls on these syllables. Therefore, you need to pronounce the sound [o] in them: k[o"]rpu"nt, [o"]plotty", st[o"]fiftieth" [See: Graudina et al. 1976: 268-269].

2. Again, first material:

Children learn to cook the most basic things; Our movement includes specialists in the field of [a]cology, medicine, and education. And on the screen of one of the TV channels in Yekaterinburg it was even written about the speaker: anthamologist (since we were talking about mosquitoes, they obviously meant an entomologist, that is, a person who studies insects).

In modern Russian there is a tendency to dephonologize unstressed vowels; simply put, in an unstressed position we tend to distinguish fewer and fewer vowel sounds. It is no coincidence that the pronunciation of grad[ъ]s was recorded, that is, the reduction of not only the extra-stressed [a] and [o], but also [y]. However, at the beginning of a word, in place of the unstressed [e], as the “Russian Grammar” indicates, you need to pronounce [ы е] - “the sound of the non-front row, the middle one between Y and E” [Russian Grammar 1980 vol. 1: 25, 26]. Therefore, the pronunciation reflected in the examples should be considered incorrect. Probably, the manifestation of this pattern can be seen in the pronunciation [e]integration (The main trend now is [e]integration), unless this is an individual pronunciation defect.

Accent

The greatest number of errors in the pronunciation of words is associated with stress. This circumstance is explained by the nature of stress in the Russian language. It is varied and movable, that is, firstly, its place is not assigned to any one syllable in a word, for example, to the first, last or penultimate, and secondly, it can fall on different syllables in the forms of one and the same the same words.

Fixed stress

The error may lie in the fact that in a word with a fixed stress on one or another syllable, it is transferred to another syllable, still remaining motionless. For example, the word "pe" in all forms is pronounced with the emphasis on the first syllable. But for just two days different people on different radio channels they pronounced it like this: Penalty" - fifty to sixty percent; Compared to the penalty, these accounts are profitable; This made it possible to stop the accrual of penalties." We see that the place of stress has changed: it now falls not on the root, but on the ending. But it remains motionless, that is, in different forms it falls on the second syllable (most likely these people will also pronounce it in the accusative: penalty").

Words of the same type in morphemic structure in Russian can have different stress: intention, but destruction; peasants, but nobles; make it easier, but go around; dosu"g, but to"access; posu"l, but "step; I can't, but I can't, I can't. Poor command of the norm, a fast pace of speech and many other reasons lead to a mixture of stress patterns:

Provocations are planned that imitate the destruction of villages and homes; Agreements of intent have been signed; It is necessary to create normal working conditions for the peasants; These people are called upon to alleviate the situation of the elderly; the transfer of disabled people to lighter types of work is used; There was a system for organizing the leisure time of our youth; We must look at deeds, and not at the promises and promises that a person makes; He did not come to terms with the non-arc.

The transfer of stress can be influenced by proximity to related words: Some of the local owners of the zucchini came up with the idea of ​​​​taking autographs from famous visitors (norm: long-standing. Influence: yes).

There are especially many errors in the pronunciation of borrowed words, which are not necessarily new to our language. Erroneous accents in the words are traditional: dispensary "r, katalo"g, quart"l, exper"rt (and derivatives):

The tuberculosis dispensary needs repair; Colorful catalogs will help you; We have set a goal to begin bauxite mining in the first quarter of this year; The center for innovative business can serve as an e"expertise center.

For decades, all reference books have been telling us about the norm of pronunciation of these words. And who knows, maybe, about at least some of them, the dictionary will eventually say something like: “expert”, “permissible e”expert,” just as he came to terms with the vowels “minor” or “college” . Only one thing, apparently, can prevent such an outcome of the struggle of options - the stamp of illiteracy and low level of speech culture. For example, it is unlikely that the pronunciation “kvartal” will be recognized as acceptable, it looks so crudely colloquial today, it is not for nothing that in statements next to it there are often other errors, let’s compare “do” in the example given or the non-normative form of an ordinal number in the following : The report for the first quarter will be on the first of March of the year two thousand and one.

It is not surprising that there are errors in the pronunciation of words that have recently begun to come into wide circulation and be heard on the air: an English newspaper published material about the team’s contacts with a bookmaker’s syndicate, it was said that the goals were paid (the norm: bookmaker “total holder” , bookmaker, besides: goals/. How much was said on our radio and television twenty years ago about bookmakers and sweepstakes? It is clear that society learns to pronounce new words over a period of time, and during this period errors are inevitable.

Probably, the same increased frequency of use can explain the following fluctuations: Apokali "psis of the "two thousand" problem excited everyone (norm: apoka"lipsis); The inevitable result of such management is ecological collapse (norm: colla "ps); I am talking with the mullah of this mosque (norm: mullah). A decade ago, these words were almost never heard on air. Now, when any election campaign turns into a horror film, and also when society’s craving for eternal values, including religious ones, increases, the listed words have entered the active vocabulary of every person, at least those who can gain access to a microphone. And this mass use, as we see, immediately affects the norms of stress.

Reflecting the Russian tragedy, the word “drug addiction” has become high-frequency, and, probably, under the influence of professional speech, fluctuations in pronunciation occur: Drug addiction is becoming a serious problem. Let’s also compare: The device is used for all anomalies of the spine (norm: anomaly).

Finally, errors in words are not uncommon, the frequency of which does not change and fluctuations in the pronunciation of which were not common. It’s just that there are people in front of the microphone who pronounce these words with an error: We wish you a festive mood to the bravura sounds of the “March of Enthusiasts” (norm: bravura; maybe the speaker connects “bravura” and “brave”, “bravo” ); The fall of Moscow pharmacy is explained in a weekly article (norm: pharmacy "pharmaceuticals"; it is quite possible that the speaker mixed up "pharmacy" and "formation"); They closely follow all the ups and downs of football battles in London (norm: ups and downs; it is obvious that the speaker does not know how to spell this word - those who know the spelling pronounce it differently: Despite all the ups and downs, the city will complete this construction. Both pronunciations were probably influenced by the convergence of this word with prefixes such as “truce”, “overlap”); (one of the presenters of “Four Quarters” on Radio Russia coquettishly wished his listeners. Norm: ka’tarsis. It’s hard to say what influenced this pronunciation. Maybe the person simply doesn’t know the norm, or maybe it was reflected in spontaneous speech the usual melodic and rhythmic pattern of many wishes such as “thank you all”, “health everyone!”, “success to everyone!”, that is ′ - - ′ -, but not ′ - ′ - -.

In terms of stress, words associated with the sphere are often unlucky Orthodox religion. Important topic becomes a fashionable topic, and fashionable items are often spoken about, but without proper qualifications, including speech:

Here is a scene from the Last Supper (norm: vecherya); The Liturgy will be dedicated to the passionate se"dmitsa (norm: seven"; An all-night vigil will begin (norm: all-night vigil); Holy Week has begun (norm: passionate); People wanted to at least put a spruce branch over their temple (norm: temple). Apparently, due to hypercorrectness, the following pronunciations arise: It was considered a special sin to eat an apple before the Second Savior (norm: sin); He assured that the check would go to a good cause (norm: good).

As can be seen in the case of “Holy Week,” shifting the emphasis can interfere with the distinction of meanings: This is reported in the “Tale of Bygone Years” (norm: temporary).

Movable stress

First of all, we will look at violations of the norms of movable stress in names, mainly in nouns.

1. The stress that is fixed according to the norm can be replaced by a non-normative movable stress in names. Let us turn to cases where errors arise under the influence of linguistic trends in the development of declensions. Errors here are numerous, and deviations gradually but persistently win one position after another and move to the position of acceptable options. First of all, this type of error is observed in the nominative case plural, where the linguistic tendency to combine declensions in the plural has not been fully realized (compare the dative, instrumental and prepositional cases, where the overwhelming number of nouns have the same endings regardless of gender). The ending -a has the greatest activity in the nominative plural, which in some cases displaces the ending -ы. Such, for example, is the famous “agreement”, where the ending -a is already recognized as acceptable, along with the strictly normative “agreement”. The influence of this trend can also be felt purely phonetically, as... shifting the stress to the ending -a with a standard fixed stress on the base. An example here is the most popular, but non-normative “means” with the norm of “means”.

After this form, the emphasis is transferred to the ending in other plural forms: We will help in mobile means to stop the drug trade (norm: means). The same process is observed in other words: They present themselves as agents who can do good for the population (norm: good); The societies "Burevestnik", "Zenith" and others were united (norm: o"society; the shift of emphasis to the ending was reflected in the form of the genitive plural: We celebrate the creation of new societies, clubs. Need: o"societies).

In a number of cases, the influence of analogy can be seen. In the following example, the source of the analogy is present in the statement itself: The issue of the supply of coal and fuel oil is being resolved (norm: mazu; most likely this is an analogy with the previous “coal”). In other examples, you can see the influence of the model, but not of specific words: Here we have a department of underwear knitwear" (norm: knitwear "zha; analogy with forms like "gara"zh-garage"); Only snobs say that" (norm: snobby; analogy with "pillar-pillars"); These are small breads" in the form of birds - larks (norm: bread; analogy with "stuffed cabbage rolls").

2. Let’s move on to the analysis of errors, which consist in the fact that the normative mobile stress is replaced by a non-normative fixed stress. There are nouns in which in the singular the stress falls on the stem, and in the plural - on the ending: tom, to"ma - toma", tomo"v. The mistake is that the stress becomes stationary, remaining in all forms on the stem syllable : We also make hot air balloons (norm: balloons); In the West, flying in hot air balloons is a craze (norm: balloons); In the West, incidents with hot air balloons are more common, perhaps because that they don’t know how to fall (norm: balls).

Another model of stress is its movement from the stem to the ending in indirect plural cases: do "la, o do" le - do "li, o share" x. The violation of the norm is reflected in the fact that in these cases the emphasis is transferred to the stem: The Duma can adopt a document with two-thirds of the votes (norm: thirds).

Another model of stress is characterized by the fact that in the singular the accusative case differs in the place of stress from other cases: water, water, vo "du. Erroneously, on this basis, it can be aligned with the rest of the paradigm: This is a person, value-conscious"to the world (norm: tse" well).

3. Let us note cases when a movable accent of one type is replaced by a movable one, but of a different pattern: The draft agreement between the parties to the conflict in Kosovo was rejected (norm: parties).

Finally, let's pay attention to the combination of some nouns with the numerals two, three, four: two hours." I.G. Miloslavsky even suggests highlighting a special counting case [Miloslavsky 1981:76], since the form hours" in combination with a numeral does not coincide with the form of the genitive case in combination, for example, “I don’t even have a free hour.” This happens because in combinations with numerals the form of the dual number has been preserved to this day [Ivanov 1964: 331]. In television and radio speech, there is a loss of these forms: Two hours have passed. This emphasis is not normative.

The same desire to unify forms according to the place of stress explains errors in pronunciation short adjectives: You are right" (norm: pra"you; influence of the form "right")

The norms of movable stress are often violated in verb forms.

Let's start with the infinitive: We invite everyone to take part in this job fair (norm: accept; grammatical analogy with the forms “accepted, accepted”); This did not prevent him from taking first place (norm: take; influence of the forms “taken, taken”).

Past tense. Here, as in short adjectives, the desire to unify forms according to the place of stress is evident: The Commission "accepted this project as a basis (norm: accepted"; analogy with "accepted"); The dream was lifted from him as if by hand" (norm: taken "lo; analogy with "took off""); It is necessary for people to understand the situation (norm: understood; the analogy goes beyond the paradigm of the past tense: understand); This process began a long time ago (norm: began; the analogy goes beyond the paradigm of this verb: na" chal).

It also happens that the stress that is fixed within the past tense forms is shifted under the influence of forms of another tense of the same verb: They invested about eight million rubles in this event (norm: invested; analogy with “invested, invested” ").

In present and future simple tense a shift in stress may occur, although according to the norm the verb has a fixed stress: He calls the editor (norm: call; the influence of another stress model such as “love”, love”l - lyubit, lyubim”). There may also be a reverse process, when the number of forms that are identical in the place of stress increases: Local electricians are in no hurry to explain the situation (norm: in a hurry; analogy with “hurrying up”, hurrying up, hurrying up, hurrying up, "hurried"

From gerunds Let us only note “remembering”. It is used much more often than the verb “remembering” and, apparently, therefore begins to be pronounced with a different emphasis: Pierce Brosnan agreed to talk with our correspondent, in memory of his long-standing friendship with Komsomolskaya Pravda. The shift in stress is probably caused by the convergence with the more usual vowel form: organize “I”, “liku” “I”, “criticize” “I”, “credit” “I” and so on.

Participle. In spontaneous speech, the passive participles of the past tense manifest themselves most actively, in which the largest number of errors are observed. Firstly, in a number of cases, the emphasis shifts to the root or closer to the root: Here people will restore health after suffering illnesses (norm: suffered; analogy with “suffered”); The detachment was well equipped (norm: equipped van, from the verb “equip”; analogy with forms like: “analyzed”, “corrected”).

Secondly, the opposite phenomenon is observed - a transfer of emphasis from the root to the affix: The nobility and bourgeoisie of Austria-Hungary were equalized in rights (norm: ura"; the influence of the forms "equalize, equalize" is possible, where the place of emphasis is different , but still not at the root); The material is called “Model of a “lost” match” (norm: lost; probably the upset speaker was thinking not so much about the participle as about the “game”).

As in the personal forms of the past tense, in short passive past participles errors in stress can arise under the influence of feminine forms: “Important decisions were made (norm: accepted; analogy with “accepted”.” In turn, this form tests movement of the stress under the influence of the forms “accepted, accepted” and is often pronounced like this: accepted).

Regarding the active participles of the present tense, we note the frequently used form “might” with the wrong emphasis: It is from them, who cannot find income, that their wives leave “of course, the form “may” influences”, to remember the norm, you can take into account that the Russian equivalent of this Old Church Slavonic borrowing is the adjective “mighty”, which no one tries to pronounce as “mighty”).

Of the active participles of the past tense, we especially highlight the form “died”, which, under the influence of the forms “u”mer, u”died,” is very often pronounced incorrectly: I propose to honor the “dead” with a minute of silence.

As our material shows, errors at the phonetic level, most often without complicating understanding, reduce the cultural and speech characteristics of the speech and thus, of course, damage the image of the speaker. The editor cannot interfere with the text being broadcast live, but he has the opportunity to influence the level of speech culture of the editorial staff. Journalists, in turn, can prevent the penetration of at least some phonetic errors in the speech of their interlocutors into the air, in one way or another eliminating errors revealed in preliminary conversations.

2.2.2. Morphological level

The morphological level is the level that determines the formation and change of words. Therefore, the norms here concern word formation and inflection.

Word formation

Violation of word formation norms can be defined either as a non-normative replacement of one word formation model with another model, or as the creation of a new word without any special need.

Model replacement

Since the word-formation model includes such elements as a productive stem and a word-forming device, errors may look like violations in the choice of one or the other.

1. Consider the following statements.

The audience was simply furious, I did not recognize my Kursk residents. - Norma: went berserk. Most likely, the speaker didn’t seem to want to fight with this complex combination of “stov-stv” sounds, but the result was a new formation. If the normative verb goes back to the noun “fury,” then the non-normative verb goes back to the adjective “furious.”

There were rumors about such a tournament a year ago. - Norm: negotiations. Nowadays you can often hear statements like: “We talked about this issue very seriously,” “We talked about this topic” (meaning “discussed,” i.e., “discussed”). To denote the situation of “discussion of an issue,” the speaker forms a word from the verb “to speak.” A new name appears instead of the usual “negotiations”.

The prosecutor's office takes the hooligans under protection, at the same time discrediting the victim. - Norma: at the same time. The speaker used a dialect word (in the Urals, by the way, the adverb “at the same time” is also known). The lexico-syntactic method of word formation is used, and in literary language One form of the numeral is taken as the initial unit - the accusative case, and in the dialect another - the instrumental.

2. Deviations from the norm in the choice of word-forming means are varied due to the fact that these means themselves are varied.

Iraq must strictly comply with UN requirements. - Norm: strictly. The console has been replaced.

I'm not good at gardening. - Norm: in gardening. Probably, the constant proximity of gardening and vegetable gardening affected the design of the first element of the pair and forced the speaker to use the suffix -nichestvo- instead of -stv-.

Bach had many examples to follow. - Norm: to be followed. The normative suffix -nii- is replaced by the suffix -eniy-.

An old friend of his says hello to the talented baker. -Norma: .bread baker. The null suffix is ​​replaced by the suffix -ar-. The words “breadmaker” and “baker” are contaminated.

Alexy II was invited to Bethlehem in connection with the two thousandth anniversary of Christianity. - Norm: two thousand years. The interfix -uh- is replaced by the non-normative morpheme -e-.

New words

New words, as we know, constantly appear in the language both to denote new realities and to obtain an expressive effect when re-nominated. A new formation is perceived as an error only when it is impossible to understand why a new name was needed if the old one would have sufficed.

Yes, everything will pass - this is a strike, that’s all. - It is unlikely that the statement “Yes, everything will pass - these strikes, that’s all” is less expressive than the original.

The past 24 hours in the Sredneuralsk region passed as usual. - And here it is not clear why Sredneuralytsina is better than the usual Middle Urals. Moreover, the model in -schin- usually gives not a synonym for the producing unit, but a truly special name: Tambov region is not Tambov, Turet region is not just Turkey.

Please excuse us for the audio quality. - This is an uneconomical education, since a phonogram is a “soundogram”, a recording of sound.

This is what this month was called in ancient Roman language. - The ancient Roman language has long been called Latin.

Supporting charitable organizations is the problem of our survival, solving our social issues... today our task is to determine the problems of our population, how people live today. - Problematicism here can be considered only as a means of giving profundity to speech. The usual words “condition” in the first case and “problems” in the second, of course, do not create such an effect.

It happens that, despite the unusualness of a word, it is difficult to evaluate it unambiguously: The media should cover the situation in the army in a new way, then there will be less negativity. - It is clear that it is more common to hear: “there will be less bad” or “there will be less evil.” However negative attitude speaking to this “bad” new formation is expressed more clearly. Therefore, all our discussions about violations of word formation norms cannot be understood as a denial of any word creation. Let there be word creation, but from full strength, from fluency in the resources of the language, and not from illiteracy and a helpless desire to make speech thoughtful and expressive.

Inflection

Violations of inflection norms will be considered by parts of speech. Let's start with names.

Noun

First of all, let's turn to declination. We have already considered some errors in the formation of case forms in connection with the phonetic design of the word. This suggests that between the phenomena different levels There is no impassable boundary; in language everything is interconnected. For example, historical alternations of sounds in modern Russian language accompany formation, i.e. phenomenon at the morphological level. But this affects the phonetic appearance of the word, its sound composition. Thus, the design of the nominative singular “loan”, and the indirect case “loan, loan” is associated with the fluency of vowels, i.e. with the historical alternation of sounds accompanying affixation. Violation of this norm leads to an error in the set of sounds in the forms: “loan, za[yo]ma.” Considering what has been said, we will not be surprised that in a number of cases we will encounter material that is already familiar to us - we will simply look at the known from a new point of view.

In Russian from 37 to 43 sounds:

5 or 6 vowels: a, e, o, i, y, + s(M. school does not distinguish Y, since it is considered a variant of I)

Consonants: 12 pairs on TV/soft. 3 always hard: w, w, c, 2 always soft: h, j, + k, g, x ( their soft var. in borrowings. words - not a Russian sound)

32 consonants + k", g", x" + vowels= 40 + w" and w"(long) + s= 43.

Speech sounds- the smallest. sounds. units that we hear and pronounce letters- conditional graphic signs that express sounds of speech in writing.

Vowel sounds under stress are pronounced distinctly and clearly, in unstressed words it is unclear, therefore in unstressed syllables, vowels and sounds may not coincide: product - t[A]var.

Strong pos. - under. hit. Absolute strong pos.- under attack. in the beginning. words.

Yotated letters e, e, yu, i are not sounds.

b and b are not sounds, the combination ts gives the sound [ts], the letter combination sch gives the sound [ш’].

5. System of vowel sounds. Laws in force in the field of vowels.

Vowels (6 pcs) - a, o, and, u, e, s - Moscow the school considers option I)

The basic Law - Reduction(sound reduction). The further the sound is from the stress, the shorter it is (150 ms with stress, without - shorter).

Types of reduction: quantitative(and, ы, у) - the sound is shortened, high quality(a, o, e) - the sound itself changes.

Positions: tb, t"b ←t˄,t" And uh ←t,t"A, O, E →tb, t"b

Derogation from the law: at the absolute beginning of the word cap ( ˄ rbAt)

After soft acc. in the first pre-shock. syllable a, o, e pronunciation How

[ and uh ] : [l "i e do´k", [l "i e sa´]

After firm agreement. in the first pre-shock.uh sounds like [ s uh ] : [shy e stoy"].

In case endings there is. and verbs where there is a graphic I, written posterior palatal reduction Kommersant: storm - bur ".

6. System of consonants. Phonetic processes and laws operating in the area of ​​consonants.

12 pairs on TV/software: p, b, m, c, t, d, h, s, r, l, n, f + their soft variants, 3 always hard: w, w, c, 2 always soft: h, j + k, g, x( their soft var. in borrowings. words - not a Russian sound) + k", g", x"+ w" And w"(long soft)

The law of the end of the word.All doubles are deaf/bell. are stunned: brain[sk], threshold - vice, young - hammer, goat - braid, etc. In words with two consonants at the end both are stunned: milk mushroom - sadness.

Assimilation (likening one sound to another)- s[z]beat, fairy tale[c]ka. Occurs between sounds of the same type (vowels or consonants). Assimilation may be full(in this case, the assimilated sound completely coincides with the one to which it is likened) and incomplete. Towards - progressive(previous sound affects the next one - fairy tale) and regressive(the last sound affects the previous one - count).

Dissimilation (dissimilarity: two or more identical or similar sound types diverge in pronunciation further and further) - bonba, tranvay, kolidor, secretary.

Accommodation - consonants affect the pronunciation of vowels

1) back or middle vowels [a], [o], [y] after soft consonants become more forward: rad-row, lot-ice, bow-luk, n˙ny˙nya.

2) Ira and I [raw]

or vowels affect the pronunciation of consonants.

1) if t and s merge, a long sound appears: they are being built

2) rounding of consonants after labial vowels: that [t˚ot]

Proclitic: full (unstressed is adjacent to the shock) and relative (unstressed is adjacent to the shock, but the quality of the unstress does not change). The conjunctions BUT and TO are proclitic, but refer...

he is a deacon [d'jakon], but a deacon [d'jakn]; I'm with her, but clearer

Phonetich. processes:

Dierez- one sound is thrown out, another sound is formed: heart [s’erts], sad, empty, feeling.

Epenthesis- insertion of sound where there was none: beaver-beaver, fire-fire, betray-transmit, shame-stram, scorpio-scorpion.

Prosthesis- insertion of a sound at the beginning of a word: eight-octopus, sharp-sharp

Metathesis- mutual rearrangement of sounds or syllables in words on the basis of assimilation or dissimilation: case (from German futteral), plate (talerka), marble (murmor)

PHONETICS

Phonetics(from Greek - phone “sound”) - a branch of the science of language that studies the sounds of speech. They are able to form words with the help of which objects and phenomena of the surrounding world are named: [a] + [k] + [n] - [оґ] - [ akno] = window; [k] + [a] + [v’] + [o] + [r] - [kav'or] = carpet.

To accurately convey the sound of a word, a special phonetic notation is used - transcription(from Latin trans-criptio - “I am rewriting”).

Basic transcription signs:

Transcription boundaries

[’ ] - a sign of softness of a consonant [p’et’] - sing

[j’] - soft voiced consonant (yot) - pits

Sound is the minimum unit of spoken speech. In the sound of speech, acoustic, articulatory and semantic aspects are distinguished.

Acoustic side of sound perceived by hearing. From this point of view, the sound can be high and low, strong and weak, high timbre and low, etc.

Articulatory side of sound- this is the work of the speech organs. For example, the sound [r] is formed by vibration of the tip of the tongue, the sound [u] - with the help of the lips.

Semantic side sound is that sound can distinguish between the sound shells of words and their forms (in this case it is denoted by the term phoneme). For example, sound shells of words com And som differ by phoneme sounds [k] and [s].

There are 42 sounds in the Russian language: 6 vowels and 36 consonants.

So, the shortest, minimal, indivisible sound unit that stands out during the sequential sound division of a word is called the sound of speech. The traditional classification of speech sounds is to divide them into vowels and consonants.

Consonant sounds and their classification

Consonants differ from vowels in the presence of noises that are formed in the oral cavity during pronunciation. Consonants differ: 1) by the participation of noise and voice, 2) by the place of noise formation, 3) by the method of noise formation, 4) by the absence or presence of softness.

Involvement of noise and voice. Based on the participation of noise and voice, consonants are divided into noisy and sonorant. Sonorous consonants formed with the help of voice and slight noise are called: [m], [m’], [n], [n’], [l], [l’], [r], [r’]. Noisy Consonants are divided into voiced and voiceless. Noisy sonorous consonants are [b], [b'], [c], [v'], [g], [g'], [d], [d'], [g], [z'], [h] , [z'], [j], [dz], [j], formed by noise involving voice. TO noisy deaf consonants include: [p], [p'] [f], [f'], [k], [k'], [t], [t'], [c], [s'], [w] , [w'], [x], [x'], [ts], [h'], formed only with the help of noise alone, without the participation of the voice.

Location of noise generation. Depending on which active organ of speech (lower lip or tongue) dominates in the formation of sound, consonants are divided into labial And lingual. If we take into account the passive organ in relation to which the lip or tongue articulates, consonants can be labially - labial[b], [p], [m] and labially-dental[v], [f]. lingual are divided into front-lingual, middle-lingual and posterior-lingual. Forelingual can be dental[t], [d], [s], [z], [ts], [n], [l] and palatally-dental[h], [w], [f], [r]; middle language - mid palatal[j]; posterior lingual - postopalatine[g], [k], [x].

Methods of noise generation. Depending on the difference in the methods of noise formation, consonants are divided into stops[b], [p], [d], [t], [g], [k], slotted[v], [f], [s], [z], [w], [g], [j], [x], affricates [ts], [h], occlusive passages: nasal [n], [m], lateral, or oral, [l] and tremulous (vibrants) [r].

Hardness and softness of consonants. The absence or presence of softness (palatalization) determines the hardness and softness of consonants. Palatalization(lat. palatum - hard palate) is the result of the mid-palatal articulation of the tongue, complementing the main articulation of the consonant sound. Sounds formed with such additional articulation are called soft, and those formed without it - hard.

A characteristic feature of the consonant system is the presence in it of pairs of sounds that are correlated in deafness-voicedness and in hardness-softness. The correlation of paired sounds lies in the fact that in some phonetic conditions (before vowels) they are distinguished as two different sounds, and in other conditions (at the end of a word) they do not differ and coincide in their sound. Wed . rose - dew And roz - grew [ros - grew]. This is how paired consonants appear in the indicated positions [b] - [p], [v] - [f], [d] - [t], [z] - [s], [zh] - [sh], [g] - [k], which, therefore, form correlative pairs of consonants in terms of deafness and voicedness.

The correlative series of voiceless and voiced consonants is represented by 12 pairs of sounds. Paired consonants differ in the presence of voice (voiced) or absence of it (voiceless). Sounds [l], [l'], [m], [m'], [n], [n'], [r], [r'], - unpaired voiced, [x], [ts], [ h'] - unpaired deaf.

The hardness and softness of consonants, like deafness and voicedness, differ in some positions, but do not differ in others, which leads to the presence of a correlative series of hard and soft sounds in the consonant system. So, before the vowel [o] there are differences [l] - [l’] (cf.: lot-ice [lot - l’ot], and before the sound [e] not only [l] - [l’], but also other paired hard-soft sounds are not distinguished (cf.: [l’es], [v’es], [b’es] etc.).

Vowel sounds and their classification

Vowels differ from consonants in the presence of a voice - a musical tone - and the absence of noise.

The existing classification of vowels takes into account the following conditions for the formation of vowels: 1) the degree of elevation of the tongue, 2) the location of the elevation of the tongue, and 3) the participation or non-participation of the lips. The most significant of these conditions is the position of the tongue, which changes the shape and volume of the oral cavity, the state of which determines the quality of the vowel.

According to the degree of vertical elevation of the tongue, vowels of three degrees of elevation are distinguished: high vowels[i], [s], [y]; mid-rise vowels[e], [o]; low vowel[A].

The horizontal movement of the tongue leads to the formation of vowels in three rows: front vowels[i], [e]; middle vowels[s], [a] and back vowels[y], [o].

The participation or non-participation of the lips in the formation of vowels is the basis for dividing vowels into labialized(rounded) [o], [y] and non-labialized(unrounded) [a], [e], [i], [s].

Noun, number of synonyms: 2 sound composition (2) phonetics (3) ASIS Dictionary of Synonyms. V.N. Trishin. 2013… Synonym dictionary

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A syllable is divided into even smaller units - sounds, which are the smallest units of sounding speech pronounced in one articulation.

Speech sounds are created by air vibrations and the functioning of the speech apparatus. Therefore, they can be considered as physiological phenomena, since they arise as a result of human articulatory activity, and physical (acoustic), i.e. perceivable by ear. However, when characterizing speech sounds, we cannot limit ourselves to these two aspects; Linguistics studies sounds as special units of language that perform social function, i.e. function of communication between people. For linguistics, it is important to find out to what extent sounds are associated with distinguishing the meaning of words and their forms, whether all sounds are equally important for language as a means of communication. Therefore, at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries. Linguists began to study precisely the functional side of sounds, as a result of which a new branch of linguistics appeared - phonology.

Sound composition of the Russian language

All speech sounds are divided into two groups: vowels and consonants.

Vowels and consonants differ in acoustic and articulatory characteristics: 1) vowels are tonal sounds, consonants are formed with the participation of noise; 2) vowels are sounds that are formed without the participation of an obstacle in the path of the air stream, all consonants are formed with the help of an obstacle (closed lips - [b], [p], the gap between the tongue and the hard palate - [x], etc. ); 3) vowels are not differentiated by the method and place of formation; for consonants, the place and method of formation are very significant grounds for their classification; 4) when forming vowels, the speech organs are tense evenly, when forming consonants, the speech organs are most tense in the place where there is an obstacle; 5) the air stream is weak when pronouncing vowels, but strong when pronouncing consonants, since it needs to overcome the obstacle existing in its path; 6) all vowel sounds can be syllabic-forming, consonants (except sonorants) cannot independently form a syllable.

In this opposition of vowels and consonants of speech sounds, an intermediate position is occupied by sonorant consonants, which in part are similar to consonants (formation with the help of an obstruction, differentiation by method and place of formation, presence of noise), and in part - with vowels (predominance of tone, ability to form a syllable) .

There are six vowel sounds (phonemes) in the Russian language: [i], [s], [u], [e], [o], [a]. Their classification is based on articulatory features: the degree of tongue elevation, row, and participation of the lips.

There are 37 consonant sounds (phonemes) in the modern Russian language. Their formation and classification are much more complicated than vowels.

Intonation

Each phrase is intonationally designed.

Intonation- this is a set of means of organizing sounding speech, reflecting its semantic and emotional-volitional aspects and manifested in successive changes in pitch (melody - raising or lowering the tone), speech rhythm (ratio of strong and weak, long and short syllables), speech rate (acceleration and slowdown in the flow of speech), sound strength (intensity of speech), intraphrase pauses (which is reflected in the rhythm of the phrase) and the overall timbre of the utterance, which, depending on the target setting, can be “cheerful”, “playful”, “frightened”, “gloomy”, etc. Intonation performs important functions: it not only shapes phrases, sentences and various syntactic structures, but also participates in the expression of thoughts, feelings and will of people. In fact, the same segment of sounding speech, depending on how and with what intonation it is pronounced, can have different meaning: He came. - He came! - He came? The intonation of narrative speech is characterized by an increase in tone at the beginning of a phrase and a decrease in tone at the end of the phrase, at the indentation; an interrogative phrase is characterized by a sharp rise in indentation; The intonation of the exclamation phrase is evenly high.

It is difficult to convey intonation differences in writing. Apart from the period, colon, dash, comma, parentheses, exclamation marks, question marks and ellipses, we have no means of conveying the nature of intonation in writing. And even with the help of these signs it is not always possible to reflect the intonation pattern of a phrase. For example:

Who doesn't know that he was the first to express this idea? - at the end of the sentence it is question mark, however, the phrase has an affirmative rather than interrogative meaning.

Intonation also fulfills one more important function- with its help, a sentence is divided into semantic-syntactic units - syntagms.

Variety of sounds and their differences

Each language has quite a lot of sounds. Moreover, in different languages ​​their number is different, as is the relationship between vowels and consonants.

Each sound has its own acoustic characteristics, characteristics to which modern phonologists are paying increasing attention, since they believe that acoustic classification is a truly linguistic classification that deals with finding out what sound is, while articulatory classification of sounds (the most common) is aimed at figuring out how sound is produced.

Sounds differ from one another in pitch, length, strength and timbre. Therefore, any two sounds that have different pitch, strength and timbre are acoustically different. In addition, there are differences between sounds explained by subjective and objective aspects. 1. Individual differences between sounds are associated with the pronunciation characteristics of individual people. Each person pronounces sounds differently to some extent. For linguistics, the only important differences between sounds are those that change the meaning of words. If two people (for example, a schoolboy and a professor) said the word student, then we notice that this word was pronounced differently by them, but at the same time we affirm that they pronounced the same word. But if the same person utters two words, for example, garden and court, then we will recognize without the slightest difficulty that these are different words, since they have two different sounds [a, y], which distinguish their sound appearance and indicate differences in meaning.

Thus, individual differences in the production of the same sound are not linguistically important. Conversely, different sounds are linguistically important as units of a language system, regardless of the different pronunciations of them by individual people.

2. When we say the word city[gor't], in a post-stressed syllable, in place of the sound [o], a very unclear sound sounds, as it happens reduction(from the Latin reducere - return, bring back) - weakening of sound under the influence of the phonetic conditions in which the sound finds itself(unstressed position). Here the sound [o] not only loses part of its sonority, but also loses quality - it turns into the sound [ъ]. In the same word, the final sound [d] is deafened, pronounced as [t] - this is a characteristic law of the modern Russian language (voiced consonants at the end of the word are deafened). Stunned or make false calls Consonants can also occur in the middle of a word under the influence of a subsequent voiceless or voiced consonant: oak - oak [dupka], ask - request [prose "ba]. These phenomena indicate that in certain phonetic conditions (voiced before a voiceless, voiceless before a voiced, voiced at the end of a word, a vowel in an unstressed position, etc.) it is possible that one sound influences another and their changes or other sound processes are usually called such differences between sounds. phonetically determined. They also have no linguistically important meaning, since the word and its meaning do not change.

3. In words WHO And university after the consonant [v] we pronounce different sounds. These sounds in these words serve distinguishers their meaning. The difference in sounds is not positionally determined, since both appear in the same position (stressed - strong for vowel sounds), there is also no influence of neighboring sounds. Differences between sounds that are not due to either individual characteristics pronunciations, neither the position of the sound, nor the influence of one sound on another, are called functional. The functional differences between sounds are linguistically important.

Consequently, two sounds, the difference between which is not due to the position or influence of neighboring sounds, but is associated with a change in the meaning of the word, are functionally different.

onetic transcription

The transcribed sound (word, sentence, text) is usually enclosed in square brackets: [we] we. Recording of spoken speech is carried out without capital letters and punctuation marks, but with pauses.

In words consisting of more than one syllable, the place of stress should be indicated: [z’imá] winter. If two words (for example, a preposition and a noun) are characterized by a single stress and are pronounced together, then they are connected by a league: [in_house].
Russian phonetic transcription mainly uses letters of the Russian alphabet. Consonant sounds are written using all the corresponding letters, except ь and й. Special superscript or subscript symbols can be placed next to the letter. They indicate some features of the sound:

[n’] - soft consonant ([n’] palate);

[n:] - long consonant (bath); may be indicated by a superscript or [n:].

The letter u in most cases corresponds to the sound, which is conveyed by the sign [sh’:]: u[sh’:]élie, [sh’:]setina. A voiced parallel to [w’:] will be the sound [zh’:], appearing, for example, in the word dró[zh’:]and yeast (another pronunciation is allowed - dró[zh:]i).

The Latin letter [j] denotes the consonant “yot” in transcription, which sounds in the words block apple, water reservoir, vor[b'ji´] sparrows, language language, sará[j] barn, má[j]ka T-shirt, há[ j]nick kettle, etc. Please note that the consonant “yot” is not always represented in writing by the letter y.

Vowel sounds are recorded using various types of signs.

Stressed vowels are transcribed using six symbols: [i] - [p'ir] pir, [y] - [ardor] ardor, [u] - [ray] ray, [e] - [l'es] forest, [o ] - [house] house, [a] - [garden] garden.
Unstressed vowels undergo various changes depending on their place in relation to stress, the proximity of hard or soft consonants, and the type of syllable. To write unstressed vowels, the symbols [у], [и], [ы], [а], [ъ], [ь] are used.

Unstressed [y] occurs in any syllable. In its quality, it is similar to the corresponding stressed vowel: musical, r[u]ka, vod[u], [u]dar.
Unstressed vowels [i], [s], [a] are pronounced in the syllable that immediately precedes the stressed one (such a syllable is called the first pre-stressed one): [r'i]dov rows, mod[a]lér fashion designer, d[a]ská board . These same vowels, with the exception of [s], also appear at the absolute beginning of the word: [and] excursionist excursionist, [a]byská search.
Unstressed [i], [s], [a] are similar in quality to the corresponding stressed sounds, but not identical to them. Thus, unstressed [i] turns out to be a vowel, intermediate between [i] and [e], but closer to [i]: [l’i]sá fox - cf.: [l’i´]sam foxes. The pronunciation of other vowels is also different. The use of symbols [and], [s], [a] to denote unstressed sounds is associated with a certain degree of convention.

So, the unstressed vowels listed above are characteristic of the positions of the 1st pre-stressed syllable and the absolute beginning of the word. In other cases, the sounds [ъ] and [ь] are pronounced.

The sign [ъ] (“er”) conveys a very short sound, its quality intermediate between [ы] and [а]. The vowel [ъ] is one of the most frequent sounds in Russian speech. It is pronounced, for example, in the 2nd pre-stressed syllables and in post-stressed syllables after hard syllables: p[a]rohod steamer, v[a]doz water carrier, zad[a]l set, gór[a]d city.

In similar positions, after soft consonants, a sound is recorded that is reminiscent of [and], but shorter. This vowel is conveyed by the sign [ь] (“er”): [m’j]rovoy world, [m’j]lovoy chalk, zá[m’r] froze, zá[l’j]zhi deposits.

Speech organs. Formation of vowels and consonants

The stream of air leaving the trachea must pass through the larynx, which contains the vocal cords. If the ligaments are tense and close together, then the exhaled air will cause them to vibrate, resulting in a voice, that is, a musical sound, tone. Tone is required when pronouncing vowels and voiced consonants.

The pronunciation of consonants is necessarily associated with overcoming an obstacle created in the oral cavity in the path of the air stream. This obstacle arises as a result of the convergence of the speech organs to the boundaries of the gap ([f], [v], [z], [w]) or the full stop ([p], [m], [d], [k]).

Various organs may be close or closed: the lower lip with the upper lip ([p], [m]) or upper teeth ([f], [v]), certain parts of the tongue with the hard and soft palate ([z], [d] ], [w], [k]). The organs involved in creating the barrier are divided into passive and active. The former remain motionless, the latter make certain movements.

The air stream overcomes the gap or bridge, resulting in a specific noise. The latter is a mandatory component of the consonant sound. In voiced people, noise is combined with tone; in deaf people, it is the only component of sound.

When pronouncing vowels, the vocal cords vibrate, and the air stream is provided with a free, unobstructed passage through the oral cavity. Therefore, a vowel sound is characterized by the presence of tone and the complete absence of noise. The specific sound of each vowel (what distinguishes [i] from [s], etc.) depends on the position of the tongue and lips.

The movements of the pronunciation organs during the formation of sounds are called articulation, and the corresponding characteristics of sounds are called articulatory characteristics.

Based on their series, vowels are divided into three main groups. When articulating front vowels ([i], [e]), the tongue is concentrated in the front of the mouth. When articulating back vowels ([у], [о]) - in the back. Middle vowels ([ы], [а]) occupy an intermediate position.
The rising sign describes the position of the tongue when moving up or down. High vowels ([и], [ы], [у]) are characterized by a high position of the tongue in the oral cavity. The articulation of the low vowel ([a]) is associated with the low position of the tongue. Middle vowels ([e], [o]) are given a place between the named extreme groups.
The vowels [y] and [o] are labialized (or rounded), because when pronouncing them, the lips are pulled forward and rounded. The remaining vowels are pronounced with neutral lips and are non-labialized: [i], [s], [e], [a].

The table of stressed vowel vowels is as follows:

climb:
upper i´ ы´ ý (labial)
middle e´ ó (labial)
lower b

Unstressed vowels: classification features
In unstressed syllables, sounds different from those under stress are pronounced. They turn out to be shorter and articulated with less muscular tension of the speech organs. This change in the sound of vowels is called reduction. So, all unstressed vowels in the Russian language are reduced.
Unstressed vowels differ from stressed vowels both quantitatively and qualitatively. On the one hand, unstressed vowels are always shorter than stressed ones (cf.: s[a]dy´ gardens´ - s[á]dik sadik, p[i]lá pila - p[i´]lit pulit). This feature of the sound of vowels in an unstressed position is called quantitative reduction.
On the other hand, not only the duration changes, but also the very quality of the vowels. In this regard, they talk about a qualitative reduction of vowels in an unstressed position. In the pair s[a]dovod sadod - s[á]dik sadik unstressed [ъ] is not just shorter - it differs from the stressed [á].
Any unstressed vowel experiences quantitative and at the same time high-quality reduction. When pronouncing unstressed words, the language does not reach extreme points of advancement and tends to take a more neutral position.

The most “convenient” thing in this regard is sound [ъ]. This is a vowel of the middle row, middle rise, non-labialized: s[b]smolet plane, b[b]rozdá furrow.

The articulation of all unstressed vowels shifts towards the “central” [ъ]. When pronouncing unstressed [ы], [и], [у], [а] the force of the change is not very significant: cf. r[y]bak fisherman - r[y´]ryba fish, [s'i]net blue - [s'i´]niy sun, r[y]ká ruká - r[ý]ki rýki, l[ a]say to caress - l[á]skovy affectionate.. Unstressed [s], [i], [y], [a] can be left in the same cells of the table as the stressed ones, slightly shifting them to the center.
The unstressed [ь] ([с’ь]neuva sineva) should take an intermediate position between the unstressed [and] and the “central” [ъ].
The sound “er” is characterized as a vowel of the front-middle row, upper-middle rise, non-labialized.
The reduction can be stronger or less strong. Among the listed unstressed vowels, the sounds [ъ] and [ь] stand out for their brevity. The remaining vowels are pronounced more clearly.
The vowel table, supplemented with unstressed sounds, takes the following form:
row: front middle rear
climb:
upper i´ y´ y(labial)y
and y
b
average
e´ Ъ ó (labial.)
lower a
á

Features of the pronunciation of vowels in unstressed positions (positional distribution of vowels)

Features of the distribution of unstressed vowels in a word can be presented in the form of a table.

1) after solid ones they can protrude[y], [s], [a], [b]: [meadow] meadow, [ly] go bald, [la]retz casket, [l]horses;
2) after soft ones are pronounced[y], [i], [b]: [l’u]to admire, [h’i]to blacken, [l’]to pick up an ice ax;
3) pre-shock[a] and [b] after soft ones are impossible: [p’i]dy´ ranks, [p’i]ti´ five, [p’i]dovoy private, [p’i]tiletka five-year plan;
4) [ъ] after soft ones appears only in the return form, in endings and formative suffixes. Such pronunciation is possible, not obligatory, and is associated with the task of conveying grammatical information about case, number, etc.:
received and´l[s’b] turned out - from baba[s’b] from babushya;
drip[l’b] drop - drip[l’b] drop;
to bears - to bears; to bears;
landing in y´sa[d'y]s - landing in y´sa[d’y]s.
All the features of vowel pronunciation analyzed above relate to the phonetics of commonly used significant words. Conjunctions, prepositions, particles, interjections, rare borrowings may not obey the described patterns. They allow, for example, the following pronunciation of non-high vowels: slept, but [o] not for long, b[o]á, andánt[e].kt

It is easy to notice that the expression of the thought contained in this phrase requires a mandatory pause after the word weapon. The presence of a pause creates two speech beats in a phrase. Thus, a speech beat is a part of a phrase limited by pauses and characterized by incompleteness intonation. Pauses between speech beats are shorter than between phrases.

Speech tact, like a phrase, has direct relation to the expression of content in language. Depending on where one speech beat ends and the next one begins, sometimes the whole meaning of the phrase changes: How struck him // by his brother’s words. —How his words struck his brother. The arbitrariness of dividing a phrase into speech beats can lead to the complete destruction of thought.

As a rule, a phrase consists of several speech bars: In the hour of testing // bow to the fatherland // in Russian // at your feet (D. Kedrin). A beat can coincide with a single word. But usually several words are combined in a speech beat.

onetic vowel alternations. Designation of unstressed vowels in writing

Sounds belonging to the same morpheme (root, prefix, suffix, ending) and replacing each other in different phonetic positions form a phonetic alternation. In the above example, the phonetic alternation [ó] // [and] is fixed.

In Russian the following are possible: alternation of stressed and unstressed sounds:

1. [ý] // [y] z[ý]by, z[u]bnoy: teeth, dental.

2. [i´] // [i] // [b] [p’i´]shet, [p’i]sát, [p’i]san´na: writes, write, scribbling.

3. [ы´] // [ы] // [ъ] w[ы´]re, w[y]rok, w[ъ]roká: wider, wider, wider.

4. [i´] // [i´] // [i] // [i] [i´]games, s[y´]gran, [i]play, s[y]play: games, played, play, play.

5. [е´] // [ы] // [ъ] sh[e]st, sh[y]stá, sh[b]stóy: pole, pole, pole.

6. [e´] // [i] // [b] [p’e´]shiy, [p’i]shkom, [p’b]shekhod: on foot, on foot, pedestrian.

7. [ó] // [a] // [ъ] d[ó]mik, d[a]mashny, d[a]movoy: house, home, brownie.

8. [ó] // [i] // [b] [p’ó]stroy, [p’i]str i´t, [p’b]strostá: variegated, variegated, variegated.

9. [ó] // [s] // [ъ] sh[ó]lka, sh[y]lká, sh[b]isty: silk, silk, silky.

10. [á] // [a] // [ъ] herb, herb, herb, herb: herb, grass, herbal.

11. [á] // [i] // [b] [p’á]ty, [p’i]tak, [p’t]tachok: fifth, penny, penny.

Please note that the quality of an unstressed sound is not indicated in writing. The fact that the vowel is unstressed is a signal spellings. In the roots of the words walk, pestrity, pyatak, pronounced with an unstressed [i], the letter is not written. When choosing the correct letter in these examples, you need to focus on the stressed version of the pronunciation of the root: [p’e´]shiy, [p’ó]stro, [p’á]ty.

Such a check underlies the leading principle of Russian spelling - morphematic (more precisely, phonemic). Morpheme gets this graphical representation, at which. positionally alternating sounds are written with one letter in accordance with the strong version (a vowel is checked by stress, a consonant is checked by placing it before the vowel).

The spelling of unstressed vowels, not checked by stress, falls under another principle of spelling - traditional. In the dictionary words s[a]báka, p['i]chál, r['i]b i´na it is customary to write the letters o, e, i, in examples like um['i]rlá / um['i]rála - letters e and i. The last two examples are related to the operation of the rules, which in all reference books are given under the heading “Alternating vowels in the root.” It should be borne in mind that in this case we are not talking about any phonetic alternations.

It is extremely rare that unstressed vowels are indicated in writing in accordance with the phonetic principle of spelling. The prefix ras-/raz-/ros-/roz- has four graphic variants, correlated with the peculiarities of its pronunciation in different words, and not with the verification situation: r[a]tangle unravel, r[a]ruzrit destroy, r[ó] list painting if there is a r[ó]raffle draw (namely last option would be a test, because in it the vowel is stressed, and the consonant is before the vowel).

vowel sounds

Noisy and sonorant, voiceless and voiced consonants

Noisy and sonorant consonants differ in the ratio of noise and tone.

Nine sounds are sonorant in the Russian language: [m], [m’], [n], [n’], [l], [l’], [r], [r’], [j]. As with all consonants, when articulating sonorants, an obstacle is created in the oral cavity. However, the frictional force of the air stream on the close/closed organs of speech is minimal: the air stream finds a relatively free exit to the outside and no noise is generated. The air rushes either through the nose ([m], [m’], [n], [n’]), or into the passage between the lateral edges of the tongue and the cheeks ([l], [l’]). The absence of noise may be due to the immediacy of the obstacle ([p], [p’]) or to the fairly wide nature of the gap itself ([j]). In any case, no noise is created and the main source of sound is the tone (voice) created by the vibration of the vocal cords.

In the formation of noisy consonants ([b], [v], [d], [d], [zh], [z], etc.), on the contrary, noise plays the main role. It occurs as a result of an air stream overcoming an obstacle. The tone component of the sound is minor and can either be absent altogether (for voiceless consonants) or complement the main one (for voiced consonants).
Voiced and voiceless consonants differ in the participation/non-participation of the tone (voice) in the formation of the consonant sound.

Tone (voice) is characteristic of the pronunciation of voiced sounds; their articulation requires the obligatory work of the vocal cords. Therefore, all sonorants are voiced: [m], [m’], [n], [n’], [l], [l’], [p], [p’], [j]. Among noisy consonants, the following sounds are considered voiced: [b], [b'], [v], [v'], [g], [g'], [d], [d'], [zh], [ g:'], [z], [z'].

[b] - [p] [b’] - [p’] [z] - [s] [z’] - [s’]

[v] - [f] [v'] - [f'] [w] - [w] [w:'] - [w:']

[d] - [t] [d'] - [t'] [g] - [k] [g'] - [k']

The listed sounds are, respectively, either voiced paired or voiceless paired. The remaining consonants are characterized as unpaired. Voiced unpaired include all sonorants, and voiceless unpaired sounds include the sounds [ts], [ch’], [x], [x’].

onetic alternations of consonants according to deafness/voiceness. Indication of deafness/voicing of consonants in writing

In these positions, both voiceless and voiced consonants are found, and these sounds are used to distinguish words (morphemes). The listed positions are called strong in deafness/voicedness.

In other cases, the appearance of a dull/voiced sound is predetermined by its position in a word or the proximity of a particular sound. Such deafness/voiceness turns out to be dependent, “forced”. Positions in which this occurs are considered weak according to the specified criterion.

In the Russian language there is a law according to which voiced noisy ones are deafened at the end of a word, cf.: dý[b]a oak - du[p] oak, má[z']i ointment - ma[s'] ointment. In the given examples, the phonetic alternation of consonants in deafness / voicedness is recorded: [b] // [p] and [z’] // [s’].

In addition, positional changes concern situations when voiceless and voiced consonants are nearby. In this case, the subsequent sound affects the previous one. Voiced consonants in front of deaf people are necessarily likened to them in terms of deafness, as a result a sequence of voiceless sounds arises, cf.: ló[d]ochka boat - ló[tk]a boat (i.e. [d] // [t] before the deaf), ready[v']it prepares – ready[f't']e prepare (i.e. [v'] // [f'] before the deaf).

Voiceless consonants standing before voiced noisy ones (except for [в], [в']) change to voiced ones, a similarity occurs in terms of voicing, cf.: molo[t']i´t thresh – molo[d'b]á threshing ( [t'] // [d'] before a voiced voice), about [s']i´t to ask – about [z'b]a request (i.e. [s'] // [z'] before a voiced voice) .

The articulatory likening of sounds of the same nature, that is, two consonants (or two vowels), is called assimilation (from the Latin assimilatio ‘likeness’). Thus, assimilation by deafness and assimilation by voicedness were described above.

The designation of deafness/voicing of consonants in writing is associated with the use of the corresponding letters: t or d, p or b, etc. However, only independent, independent deafness / voicedness is indicated in writing. Sound features that turn out to be “forced”, positionally conditioned, are not indicated in writing. Thus, phonetically alternating sounds are written with one letter, the morphematic principle of spelling operates: in the word du[n] oak the letter b is written, as in the test du[b]a oak.

An exception will be the spelling of some borrowed words (transcription[p]transcription if available transcribe[b’]transcribe transcribe) and prefixes with s/z (and[s]use used if available and[h]learn to study). The graphic appearance of such examples falls under the phonetic principle of spelling. True, in the case of prefixes, it does not work completely, being combined with the traditional one: raise = raise stir.

The choice of letter in dictionary words such as railway station, and [z]best asbestos is subject to the traditional principle of spelling. Their writing does not depend either on verification (it is impossible) or on pronunciation.

hard and soft consonants

When pronouncing soft consonants ([b’], [v’], [d’], [z’], etc.), the entire body of the tongue moves forward, and the middle part of the back of the tongue rises to the hard palate. This movement of the tongue is called palatalization. Palatalization is considered an additional articulation: it is superimposed on the main one associated with the formation of an obstruction.

When pronouncing hard consonants ([b], [v], [d], [z], etc.), the tongue does not move forward and its middle part does not rise.

Consonants form 15 pairs of sounds contrasting in hardness/softness. All of them are either hard doubles or soft doubles:

[b] - [b’] [p] - [p’] [m] - [m’]

[v] - [v'] [f] - [f'] [n] - [n']

[g] - [g'] [k] - [k'] [r] - [r']

[d] - [d'] [t] - [t'] [l] - [l']

[z] - [z’] [s] - [s’] [x] - [x’]

Hard unpaired consonants include the consonants [ts], [sh], [zh], and soft unpaired consonants include the consonants [ch’], [sh:’], [zh:’] and [j].

The consonants [w] and [sh:’], [zh] and [zh:’] do not form pairs, since they differ in two characteristics at once: hardness/softness and brevity/longitude.

It should be noted that the sound [zh:’] is rare. It is possible only in a limited range of words: I ride, reins, yeast, splashes, later and some others. At the same time, [zh:’] is increasingly being replaced by [zh:].

The sound [j] occupies a very special position among soft consonants. For the remaining soft consonants, the raising of the middle part of the back of the tongue to the hard palate is, as noted above, additional articulation. The consonant [j] has the indicated articulation as the main one, because There are no other barriers when pronouncing [j]. Therefore, the sound [j] is, in principle, not capable of having a paired solid.

onetic alternations of consonants in hardness/softness. Indication of hardness/softness of consonants in writing. Letters b and b

1) before vowels, including [e]: [lu]k bow - [l'u]k hatch, [but]s nose - [n'o]s carried, pas[t e´]l pastel - pos[t 'ere bed;
Paired soft consonants before [e] are pronounced in native Russian words, paired hard consonants are pronounced in borrowed ones. However, many of these borrowings have ceased to be recognized as rare: antenna, cafe, sausage, stress, mashed potatoes, prosthesis, etc. As a result, in common words it has become possible to pronounce both hard and soft consonants before [e].

2) at the end of the word: ko[n] kon - ko[n’] horse, zha[r] heat - zha[r’] fry;

3) for sounds [l], [l’], regardless of their position: vo[l]ná wave - vo[l’]ná is free;

4) for consonants [c], [s'], [z], [z'], [t], [t'], [d], [d'], [n], [n'], [ р], [р'] (in front-lingual speakers)
– in the position before [k], [k'], [g], [g'], [x], [x'] (before the back-lingual ones): gó[r]ka gorka - gó[r']ko bitterly, bá[n]ka bank - bá[n']ka bathhouse;
– in the position before [b], [b’], [p], [p’], [m], [m’] (before labials): i[z]bá izba - re[z’]bá carving;

In other cases, the hardness or softness of a consonant will not be independent, but caused by the influence of sounds on each other.

Similarity in hardness is observed, for example, in the case of connecting soft [n'] with hard [s], cf.: kó[n'] horse - kó[ns] horse, Spain [n']ia Spain - spain [ns] cue (i.e. [n'] // [n] before hard). The pair ju[n’] June – ju’[n’s]ky June does not obey the indicated pattern. But this exception is the only one.

Assimilation by softness is carried out inconsistently in relation to different groups of consonants and is not observed by all speakers. The only exception is the replacement of [n] with [n'] before [h'] and [w:'], cf: drum [n] drum - drum [n'ch']ik drum, gon [n]ok gonok – gó[n' w:']ik racer (i.e. [n] // [n'] before soft).

In accordance with the old norms, one should say: l ya´[m’k’]and straps, [v’b’]it to drive in; [d'v']open the door; [s’j]eat; [s’t’]ená wall. In modern pronunciation there is no obligatory softening of the first sound in these cases. Thus, the word la´[mk’]i straps (similar to trya´[pk’]i rags, lá[fk’] and benches) is pronounced only with a hard word, other sound combinations allow for variability in pronunciation.

The designation on the letter applies only to cases of independent, and not positionally determined hardness/softness of paired consonants. At the letter level, the soft quality of the sound [n’] in the words drum and racer is not recorded graphically.

In contrast to deafness / sonority, the independent softness of paired consonants is conveyed not by the letter corresponding to the consonant sound, but by the letter following it - the letters i, е, ю, я: lik, ice, hatch, clang;
In modern language, the letter e no longer denotes the softness of the preceding consonant. The combination of letters ...te... cannot be read if you do not see which word it belongs to - dough or test.

2) at the end of a word with a letter soft sign: horse, fry, dust;

3) in the middle of the word, before the consonant, there is a soft sign: darkness, very, bathhouse.

The independent hardness of paired consonants is conveyed by the following means:

Letters y, o, u, a, e: bast, boat, bow, weasel, karate;

At the end of the word there is no soft sign: con_, heat_, dust_l;

In the middle of the word there is no soft sign before the consonant:
t_ min, s_ looks, bank_ ka.

The hardness/softness of unpaired consonants does not require a separate designation. The spelling i/y, e/o, yu/u, ya/a after the letters w, zh, ch, sch, c, corresponding to unpaired ones, is dictated by tradition: life, number, chicken, burn, burn, joke, brochure, cup. The same applies to the use/non-use of the letter soft sign in a number of grammatical forms: rye, married_, quiet, baby_, thing, comrade_, can, brick_.

Please note that the names of the letters b and b are insidious. The letter "hard sign" never denotes hardness; its use is associated with the separating function, i.e. indicating the presence of [j] before the following vowel sound: st will eat, a[d’jу]tant adjutant.

The functions of the letter "soft sign" are broader. Firstly, it can also be used in a dividing function, but not after the prefixes: [вjý]ga blizzard, bu[l’jó]n broth. In this case, the letter ь does not indicate the softness of the consonant. Secondly, the soft sign can traditionally be written in a number of grammatical forms after letters corresponding to unpaired consonants (see above). When used in this way, the letter ь again does not convey the softness of sounds. And finally, in a number of situations the letter ь indicates the softness of consonants in a letter. This function extends to examples with independent softness of paired consonants at the end of a word and in the middle of a word before a consonant (see above).

Place and method of consonant formation

This characteristic is given with the obligatory indication of the active (moving) and passive (stationary) organs. Thus, consonants, the articulation of which is associated with the movement of the lower lip, are labiolabial ([p], [p'], [b], [b'], [m], [m']) and labiodental ([ f], [f'], [v], [v']). Consonants formed by active participation tongue, are divided into anterior lingual teeth ([s], [s'], [z], [z'], [t], [t'], [d], [d'], [ts], [l] , [l'], [n], [n']), anterior lingual anteropalatal ([w], [w'], [zh], [zh'], [h'], [r], [r'] ), midlingual midpalatal ([j]), backlingual midpalatal ([k'], [g'], [x']) and backlingual backpalatal ([k], [g], [x]). All of the listed sound groups are reflected in the table of consonants (see below).

When looking at the table (Appendix to the publication), be sure to pronounce the sounds given in it. The work of your own speech organs will help you understand why each sound is placed in a particular cell.

The method of formation of a consonant is a characteristic that simultaneously indicates the type of obstacle in the oral cavity and the method of overcoming it.

There are two main ways to form an obstruction - either complete closure of the speech organs, or their bringing together to the distance of the gap. This is how stop and fricative consonants are distinguished.

When articulating slots, a stream of exhaled air exits in the middle of the oral cavity, producing friction against the adjacent organs of speech: [f], [f'], [v], [v'], [s], [s'], [z], [ z'], [w], [w¯'], [zh], [zh¯'], [j], [x], [x'].

The pronunciation of stop consonants includes the moment of complete shutter of the speech organs, when the exit of the air stream to the outside is blocked. The method of overcoming the bow may be different, depending on which further division into classes is carried out.

Closing plosives involve eliminating an obstacle with a strong and short push of air that quickly comes out: [p], [p'], [b], [b'], [t], [t'], [d], [d' ], [k], [k'], [g], [g'].

In stop affricates, the organs of speech that are tightly adjacent to each other do not sharply open, but only open slightly, forming a gap for air to escape: [ts], [h’].

Stop nasals do not require breaking the stop at all. Thanks to the lowered palatine curtain, the air does not rush to the place of the shutter, but freely exits through the nasal cavity: [m], [m’], [n], [n’].

When the closing lateral [l] and [l’] are formed, the air also does not come into contact with the obstacle, bypassing it along its trajectory - between the lowered side of the tongue and the cheeks.

In some textbooks nasal and lateral sounds are described as stop-pass sounds.

Closing tremors are characterized by periodic closing and opening of the speech organs, that is, their vibration: [p], [p’].

Sometimes tremors are considered not as a type of stop, but as a separate, third type of consonant along with stops and fricatives.

Phonetic alternations of consonants according to place and method of formation. Phonetic alternations of consonants with zero sound

Before the anterior palatal noisy ones, the dental ones are replaced by the anterior palatal ones. There is a positional assimilation based on the place of formation: [with] game with game – [w sh]uboy with fur coat (i.e. [s] // [w] before the anterior palatal), [with] game with game – [w:' h' ]championat with championship (i.e. [s] // [w:'] before the anterior palatal).

Plosives before fricatives and affricates alternate with affricates, i.e. with sounds that are closer in terms of articulation. The assimilation is carried out according to the method of formation: o[t]ygárátávát – o[tss]ypát pourátá (i.e. [t] // [ts] before the fricative).

In many cases, several features of consonants are subject to positional change at once. Thus, in the above example with the championship, the assimilation affected not only the sign of the place of formation, but also the sign of softness. And in the case of po[d] playing under the game - po[h' w:']koy under the cheek ([d] // [h'] before the voiceless, soft, anterior palatal, fricative [w:']) there was a similarity in all four characteristics - deafness, softness, place and method of formation.

In the examples, light [g]ok is light – light [x'k']y light, mya´[g]ok is soft – mya´[x'k']y soft, where [g] alternates with [x'], and not with [k'] before [k'], there is a dissimilarity (dissimilation) of sounds according to the method of formation. At the same time, dissimilation (dissimilation) on this basis is combined with assimilation (assimilation) on deafness and softness.

In addition to the phenomena described above, phonetic alternation of consonants with a zero sound can be recorded in Russian speech.

Usually [t] / [t'] and [d] / [d'] are not pronounced between teeth, between [r] and [h'], between [r] and [ts], and [l] does not sound before [ nc]. So, the deletion of a consonant is presented in the following combinations:

Stl: happy happiness – happy happy, i.e. [T'] // ;

Stn: place of place – local local, i.e. [T] // ;

Zdn: uez[d]a district – uezny uezdny, i.e. [d] // ;

Zdts: bridle[d]á bridle – under the bridle´ under the bridle, i.e. [d] // ;Dutch[d’]dutch Dutch – Dutch are Dutch, i.e. [d’] // ;

Rdts: heart [d’]échka heart – heart heart, i.e. [d’] // ;

Rdch: heart [d’]échka heart – serchishko heart, i.e. [d’] // ;

Lnts: só[l]sunny sun – sun sun, i.e. [l] // .

The loss of [j] is similar to this phenomenon. It occurs when the iota is preceded by a vowel, and followed by [i] or [b]: mo moya - [mai´] mine, i.e. [j] // .

Please note that not a single phonetic phenomenon associated with the similarity of consonants in place/method of formation or with the fact of their replacement by a zero sound is indicated in writing. According to the morphematic (phonological) principle of Russian spelling, positionally alternating sounds are written with one letter in accordance with the test. Example [w] fur coat is written as with a fur coat, because. there is [with] a game with a game. The unpronounceable consonant in happy happy is graphically restored on the basis of the test happiness, etc.

Syllable

Syllable types are characterized by their initial and final sounds. According to the initial sound, syllables can be:

1) covered - starting with non-syllable sound: [ru-ká] hand,

2) uncovered - starting with a syllabic sound: [á-ist] stork.

According to the final sound, syllables are divided into:
1) closed - ending in a non-syllabic: [ball-kon] balcony;

2) open - ending in a syllabic sound: [va-z] vase.

In modern linguistics, there are several definitions of a syllable. The definition of a syllable as a collection of sounds of different degrees of sonority (sonority) is widespread - from less sonorous to more sonorous. The syllabic sound is considered the most sonorous; it represents the apex of the syllable. With this understanding, the syllable is constructed according to the law of ascending sonority.

This law predetermines the following features of syllable division.

1. Non-finite syllables tend to be open. The majority of open syllables: [na-ý-k] science, [a-pa-zdá-l] late.

2. Closed syllables in a word can appear only in three cases:

1) at the end of the word: [pla-tok] scarf, [rash:’ot] calculation;

2) at the junction of sonorant and noisy in a non-initial syllable. The sonorant one goes to the previous syllable, the noisy one goes to the next one: [zam-shъ] suede, [ball-kon] balcony;

3) at the junction of [j] and any consonant. The sound [j] goes to the previous syllable, the consonant to the following one: [vaj-ná] war, [máj-kъ] T-shirt.

When learning to divide words into syllables, one should remember that the rules do not fully correspond to linguistic facts and still remain arbitrary, significant primarily within the framework of a specific theory.

In conclusion, we note that phonetic syllables often do not coincide with the morphemic structure of the word and the rules of transfer in writing.
Let's compare:
Phonetic syllables Morphemic division Word transfer
[ma-jór] major may-or
[sa-gla-sn] so-glas-n-a so-voice-na / sog-la-sna