Electric charges and their interaction. Electrification of bodies

Electric charge. Two types of charges

ELECTRIC CHARGE. TWO TYPES OF CHARGES.

LAW OF CONSERVATION OF CHARGE. COULLOMB'S LAW

Electric charge. Two types of charges

Let us begin our acquaintance with electrical phenomena with a very simple experiments.

1st experience. Let's rub the ebonite stick with a piece of woolen cloth, and then touch the light paper sleeve with this stick. We will see that the paper sleeve will be repelled from the ebonite stick (Fig. 1.1, A). If you touch the second paper sleeve with the same stick, and then hang both sleeves side by side, they will repel each other (Fig. 1.1, b), which means that repulsive forces arise between the sleeves. Let's denote the sleeves in this figure by number 1.

Rice. 1.2

3rd experience. Now we hang two paper sleeves next to each other (Fig. 1.3): 1 (which was in contact with an ebonite rod rubbed on wool) and 2 (which was in contact with a glass rod rubbed on silk). The sleeves attract, which means that an attractive force arises between sleeves 1 and 2.

The type of interaction we considered was known in ancient times and was called electrical interactions.

By friction charged with electricity(or acquire charges) bodies, which then interact. It has been experimentally established that there are two types of charges, conventionally called positive and negative. Like charges repel, and unlike charges attract.

Historically, it was customary to call the charges that a glass rod receives when rubbed against silk positive, and the charges that an ebonite stick receives when rubbing against wool are negative. (They could call it the other way around.)

Basic concepts of electrostatics

Charge is an inherent property of some elementary particles, the most important of which are the electron and proton.

The charges of electrons and protons are equal in magnitude and are called elementary charges.

There are two types of charges, conventionally called positive And negative . Like charges repel, and unlike charges attract.

The charge of a proton is considered positive and is denoted + e, and the charge of the electron is negative and is denoted - e.

The charge of a body is equal to the algebraic sum of the charges of the elementary particles that make up the body. If this sum is zero, the body is called electrically neutral .

Typically, electrons and protons are distributed in the body in equal quantities and with the same density. That's why algebraic sum charges in each elementary volume of the body is zero and each such volume (and the body as a whole) is electrically neutral.

If you create an excess of particles of any sign in the body, the body will be charged. Note that when an ebonite stick rubs against the wool on the stick, it creates there is an excess of electrons, and it charges negatively. On a glass rod, when rubbed against silk, it creates excess protons(or lack of electrons, since it was the electrons that left the glass into the silk), so the glass is charged positively.

Any charge is formed by a collection of elementary charges, so you can always write:

q =± Ne, (1.1)

Where N- natural number.

It has been experimentally established that the magnitude of the charge does not depend on the speed at which it moves. In addition, elementary charges can appear and disappear. But! Two elementary charges of different signs always appear and disappear simultaneously.

For example, an electron and a positron (a positively charged electron) colliding annihilate, i.e. turn into neutral particles called g-photons. In turn, a g-photon, flying near an atomic nucleus, can turn into an electron + positron pair.

The system is called electrically isolated, if charged particles do not penetrate through the surface bounding it.

Law of conservation of elementary charge:

The net charge of an electrically isolated system cannot change.

Coulomb's law

If the dimensions of a charged body can be neglected compared to the distances to other bodies, then such a body is called point charge.

Coulomb's Law:

Two stationary point charges interact with each other in a vacuum with a force directly proportional to the size of each charge and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.

The force is directed along the straight line connecting the charges (Fig. 1.4).

In scalar form, Coulomb's law has the form

, . (1.2)

In vector form, Coulomb's law has the form

. (1.3)

Note that formula (1.3) uniquely determines not only the magnitude, but also the direction of the force!

The absolute value of the vector is equal to one, and the direction coincides with the vector. (In mathematics, such a vector is called ortom vector.)

During this lesson, we will continue to get acquainted with the “pillars” on which electrodynamics stands - electric charges. We will study the process of electrification, consider what principle this process is based on. Let's talk about two types of charges and formulate the law of conservation of these charges.

In the last lesson we already mentioned early experiments in electrostatics. All of them were based on rubbing one substance against another and the further interaction of these bodies with small objects (motes of dust, scraps of paper...). All these experiments are based on the process of electrification.

Definition.Electrification– separation of electrical charges. This means that electrons from one body move to another (Fig. 1).

Rice. 1. Separation of electrical charges

Until the discovery of the theory of two fundamentally different charges and the elementary charge of an electron, it was believed that the charge was some kind of invisible ultra-light liquid, and if it is on the body, then the body has a charge and vice versa.

The first serious experiments on the electrification of various bodies, as already mentioned in the previous lesson, were carried out by the English scientist and physician William Gilbert (1544-1603), but he was unable to electrify metal bodies, and he considered that the electrification of metals was impossible. However, this turned out to be untrue, which was later proven by the Russian scientist Petrov. However, the next more important step in the study of electrodynamics (namely the discovery of dissimilar charges) was made by the French scientist Charles Dufay (1698-1739). As a result of his experiments, he established the presence of, as he called them, glass (friction of glass on silk) and resin (amber on fur) charges.

After some time, the following laws were formulated (Fig. 2):

1) like charges repel each other;

2) unlike charges attract each other.

Rice. 2. Interaction of charges

The designations for positive (+) and negative (–) charges were introduced by the American scientist Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790).

By agreement, it is customary to call the charge that forms on a glass rod if you rub it with paper or silk (Fig. 3) positive, and the negative charge on an ebonite or amber rod if you rub it with fur (Fig. 4).

Rice. 3. Positive charge

Rice. 4. Negative charge

Thomson's discovery of the electron finally made it clear to scientists that in electrification no electrical fluid is imparted to the body and no charge is applied from without. There is a redistribution of electrons as the smallest carriers of negative charge. In the region where they arrive, their number becomes greater than the number of positive protons. Thus, an uncompensated negative charge appears. Conversely, in the area from which they leave, there appears a lack of negative charges necessary to compensate for the positive ones. Thus, the area becomes positively charged.

It was established not only the presence of two different types charges, but also two different principles of their interaction: the mutual repulsion of two bodies charged with like charges (of the same sign) and, accordingly, the attraction of oppositely charged bodies.

Electrification can be done in several ways:

friction;
by touch;
blow;
guidance (through influence);
irradiation;
chemical interaction.

Electrification by friction and electrification by contact

When a glass rod is rubbed against paper, the rod receives a positive charge. In contact with the metal stand, the stick transfers a positive charge to the paper plume, and its petals repel each other (Fig. 5). This experiment suggests that like charges repel each other.

Rice. 5. Electrifying touch

As a result of friction with fur, ebonite acquires a negative charge. Bringing this stick to the paper plume, we see how the petals are attracted to it (see Fig. 6).

Rice. 6. Attraction of unlike charges

Electrification through influence (guidance)

Let's place a ruler on the stand with the plume. Having electrified the glass rod, bring it closer to the ruler. The friction between the ruler and the stand will be small, so you can observe the interaction of a charged body (stick) and a body that has no charge (ruler).

During each experiment, charges were separated; no new charges arose (Fig. 7).

Rice. 7. Redistribution of charges

So, if we have communicated an electric charge to the body using any of the above methods, we, of course, need to somehow estimate the magnitude of this charge. For this, an electrometer device is used, which was invented by the Russian scientist M.V. Lomonosov (Fig. 8).

Rice. 8. M.V. Lomonosov (1711-1765)

The electrometer (Fig. 9) consists of a round can, a metal rod and a light rod that can rotate around a horizontal axis.

Rice. 9. Electrometer

By imparting a charge to the electrometer, we in any case (for both positive and negative charges) charge both the rod and the arrow with the same charges, as a result of which the arrow deflects. The angle of deflection is used to estimate the charge (Fig. 10).

Rice. 10. Electrometer. Deflection angle

If you take an electrified glass rod and touch it to the electrometer, the needle will deflect. This indicates that an electric charge has been imparted to the electrometer. During the same experiment with an ebonite stick, this charge is compensated (Fig. 11).

Rice. 11. Electrometer charge compensation

Since it has already been indicated that no creation of charge occurs, but only redistribution occurs, it makes sense to formulate the law of conservation of charge:

In a closed system, the algebraic sum of electric charges remains constant(Fig. 12). A closed system is a system of bodies from which charges do not leave and into which charged bodies or charged particles do not enter.

Rice. 13. Law of conservation of charge

This law is reminiscent of the law of conservation of mass, since charges exist only together with particles. Very often, charges are called by analogy amount of electricity.

The law of conservation of charges has not been fully explained, since charges appear and disappear only in pairs. In other words, if charges are born, then only positive and negative ones at once, and equal in magnitude.

In the next lesson we will take a closer look at quantitative assessments of electrodynamics.

Bibliography

Tikhomirova S.A., Yavorsky B.M. Physics (basic level) - M.: Mnemosyne, 2012.
Gendenshtein L.E., Dick Yu.I. Physics 10th grade. - M.: Ilexa, 2005.
Kasyanov V.A. Physics 10th grade. - M.: Bustard, 2010.

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Homework

Page 356: No. 1-5. Kasyanov V.A. Physics 10th grade. - M.: Bustard. 2010.
Why does the needle of an electroscope deflect when it is touched by a charged body?
One ball is positively charged, the second is negatively charged. How will the mass of the balls change when they touch?
*Bring a charged metal rod to the ball of a charged electroscope without touching it. How will the needle deflection change?

1. If a glass rod is rubbed on silk or paper, it will acquire the ability to attract light objects, such as pieces of paper, hair, etc. The same effect can be observed if an ebonite rod rubbed on fur is brought to light objects. Bodies that, as a result of friction, acquire the ability to attract other bodies are called electrified or charged, and the phenomenon of bodies acquiring an electric charge is called electrification.

By hanging light balls of foil on two threads and touching each of them with a glass rod rubbed on silk, you can see that the balls will repel each other. If you then touch one ball with a glass rod rubbed on silk, and the other with an ebonite rod rubbed on fur, the balls will attract each other. This means that glass and ebonite rods, when rubbed, acquire charges of different signs, i.e. In nature, there are two types of electric charges that have opposite signs: positive and negative. We agreed to assume that a glass rod rubbed on silk acquires a positive charge, and an ebonite rod rubbed on fur acquires a negative charge.

From the described experience it also follows that charged bodies interact with each other. This interaction is called electric. In this case, charges of the same name, i.e. charges of the same sign repel each other, and charges of opposite signs attract each other.

The phenomenon of repulsion of similarly charged bodies is based on the design of an electroscope - a device that allows you to determine whether a given body is charged (Fig. 77), and an electrometer, a device that allows you to estimate the value of an electric charge (Fig. 78).

If you touch the rod of an electroscope with a charged body, the leaves of the electroscope will disperse, since they will acquire a charge of the same sign. The same thing will happen to the needle of an electrometer if you touch its rod with a charged body. In this case, the greater the charge, the greater the angle the arrow will deviate from the rod.

2. From simple experiments it follows that the force of interaction between charged bodies can be greater or less depending on the magnitude of the acquired charge. Thus, we can say that the electric charge, on the one hand, characterizes the body’s ability to interact electrically, and on the other hand, is a quantity that determines the intensity of this interaction.

The charge is denoted by the letter \(q \) , the unit of charge is a pendant: \([q] \) = 1 C.

If you touch one electrometer with a charged rod, and then connect this electrometer with a metal rod to another electrometer, then the charge on the first electrometer will be divided between the two electrometers. You can then connect the electrometer to several more electrometers, and the charge will be divided between them. Thus, electric charge has the property of divisibility. The charge divisibility limit, i.e. The smallest charge that exists in nature is the charge of an electron. The electron charge is negative and equal to 1.6·10 -19 C. Any other charge is a multiple of the electron charge.

3. An electron is a particle that is part of an atom. In the history of physics, there have been several models of the structure of the atom. One of them, which makes it possible to explain a number of experimental facts, including the phenomenon of electrification, was proposed by E. Rutherford. Based on his experiments, he concluded that at the center of the atom there is a positively charged nucleus, around which negatively charged electrons move in orbits. In a neutral atom, the positive charge of the nucleus is equal to the total negative charge of the electrons. The nucleus of an atom consists of positively charged protons and neutral particles, neutrons. The charge of a proton is equal in absolute value to the charge of an electron. If one or more electrons are removed from a neutral atom, it becomes a positively charged ion; If electrons are added to an atom, it becomes a negatively charged ion.

Knowledge about the structure of the atom makes it possible to explain the phenomenon of electrification by friction. Electrons that are loosely bound to the nucleus can break away from one atom and attach to another. This explains why a lack of electrons can form on one body, and an excess of them on another. In this case, the first body becomes positively charged, and the second - negatively.

4. If you rub uncharged glass and ebonite plates against each other and then introduce them one by one into a hollow ball placed on the electrometer rod, the electrometer will record the presence of a charge on both the glass and ebonite plates. In this case, it can be shown that the plates will have a charge of opposite signs. If both plates are inserted into the ball, the electrometer needle will remain at zero. This can be found if you rub an ebonite stick on fur: the fur, like the stick, will be charged, but the charge opposite sign.

As a result of friction, electrons passed from the glass plate to the ebonite plate, and the glass plate turned out to be positively charged (lack of electrons), and the ebonite plate negatively (excess electrons). Thus, during electrification, charge redistribution occurs; both bodies are electrified, acquiring charges of equal magnitude and opposite signs.

Wherein the algebraic sum of electric charges before and after electrification remains constant: \(q_1+q_2+…+q_n=const \) .

In the described experiment \(q_n \) the algebraic sum of the charges of the plates before and after electrification is equal to zero.

The written equality expresses the fundamental law of nature - law of conservation of electric charge. Like any physical law, it has certain limits of applicability: it is valid for a closed system of bodies, i.e. for a collection of bodies isolated from other objects.

Part 1

1. If a massive weight is placed on an insulator plate and connected to an electrometer, and then hit several times with a piece of fur, the weight will acquire a negative charge and the electrometer needle will deflect. In this case, the piece of fur will acquire a charge

1) equal to zero
2) positive, equal in magnitude to the charge of the weight
3) negative, equal to the charge of the weight
4) positive, larger in modulus of the charge of the weight

2. Two point charges will attract each other if the charges

1) identical in sign and any in absolute value
2) identical in sign and necessarily identical in absolute value
3) different in sign, but necessarily identical in absolute value
4) different in sign and any in absolute value

3. The pictures show three pairs of identical light charged balls suspended on silk threads. The charge of one of the balls is indicated in the figures. In what case(s) can the charge of the second ball be negative?

1) only A
2) A and B
3) only B
4) A and B

4. A student, during an experiment to study the interaction of a metal ball suspended on a silk thread with a positively charged plastic ball located on an insulating stand, sketched the observed phenomenon in his notebook: the thread with the ball deviated from the vertical at an angle \(\alpha \) . Based on the figure, it can be argued that the metal ball

1) has a positive charge
2) has a negative charge
3) not charged
4) either not charged or has a negative charge

5. A negatively charged body repels a light ball of aluminum foil suspended on a thread. Ball charge:

A. positive
B. negative
B. equal to zero

The following statements are true:

1) only B
2) B and C
3) A and B
4) only B

6. Metal ball 1, mounted on a long insulating handle and having a charge \(+q\) , is alternately brought into contact with two similarly isolated uncharged balls 2 and 3, located on insulating stands.

What charge will ball 2 acquire as a result?

1) 0
2) \(\frac(q)(4) \)
3) \(\frac(q)(3)\)
4) \(\frac(q)(2)\)

7. A drop with a charge \(+e \) separated from a drop having an electric charge \(-2e \) . What is the electrical charge of the remaining part of the drop?

1) \(-e\)
2) \(-3e\)
3) \(+e\)
4) \(+3e\)

8. Metal plate, which had a negative charge \(-10e\), lost four electrons when illuminated. What was the charge on the plate?

1) \(+6e\)
2) \(+14e\)
3) \(-6e\)
4)\(-14e\)

9. The water drop, which had an electric charge \(+5e\), was joined by a keel with a charge \(-6e\) . What will be the charge of the combined drop?

1) \(+e\)
2) \(-e\)
3) \(+11e\)
4) \(-11e\)

10. The figure shows point charged bodies. Body A and B have the same negative charge, and body B has an equal positive charge. What are the magnitude and direction of the resultant force acting on charge B from charges A and B?

1) \(F=F_A+A_B \) ; direction 2
2) \(F=F_A-A_B\) ; direction 2
3) \(F=F_A+A_B\) ; direction 1
4) \(F=F_A-A_B\) ; direction 1

11. From the list of statements below, select two correct ones and write their numbers in the table.

1) The greater the distance between them, the greater the force of interaction between electric charges.
2) When electrified by friction of two bodies, their total charge is zero.
3) The force of interaction between electric charges is greater, the larger the charges.
4) When two charged bodies are connected, their total charge will be less than the algebraic sum of their charges before the connection.
5) When an ebonite stick rubs against fur, only the ebonite stick acquires a charge.

12. In the process of rubbing against the silk, the glass ruler acquired a positive charge. How did the number of charged particles on the ruler and silk change, provided that no exchange of atoms occurred during friction? Establish a correspondence between physical quantities and their possible changes in this case. Write down the selected numbers in the table under the corresponding letters. The numbers in the answer may be repeated.

PHYSICAL QUANTITY
A) number of protons on silk
B) the number of protons on a glass ruler
B) number of electrons on silk

NATURE OF CHANGE
1) increased
2) decreased
3) has not changed

Answers

§ 1 Two types of electric charges. Interaction of electric charges

The structure of the Universe is formed by gravitational attraction, but only this force would lead to unlimited compression. In order for the size of bodies to remain stable, a repulsive force is necessary. Such forces include the forces of electromagnetic interaction. They cause attraction and repulsion of particles. Electrodynamics is a field of physics that studies the electromagnetic interaction of charged particles. Electrostatics is a branch of electrodynamics that studies the interaction of stationary (static) electric charges.

What is an electric charge? To create a representation, initial information, knowledge, experiences, experiments and hypotheses are required.

Electrical interaction (as opposed to gravitational interaction) is not only mutual attraction, but also repulsion.

Let's conduct an experiment: we bring an ebonite stick, electrified by friction, first to one “pultant”, then to the second. We will see that the leaves will repel when we bring the “plumes” to each other (Fig. 1).

We electrify the second “pultant” with a stick made of glass, rubbed on silk. Let’s bring it to the first “plume” and see the attraction of their leaves (Fig. 2, 3).

Electrical charges existing in nature (positive and negative) can be confirmed by these experiments.

Bodies with an electric charge interact with each other as follows:

·attract if they have charges of the opposite sign (Fig. 4);

· repel if they have charges of the same sign (Fig. 5).

In the process of electrification of different bodies, the force of interaction between the bodies will be greater (if the body has a large charge) or less (if the body has a small charge). Thus, charge is a physical quantity, and the unit of measurement for charge is usually considered to be 1 coulomb (1C).

Electric charge is a physical measure that characterizes the properties of charged bodies to interact with each other.

The smallest portion of charge is the elementary charge, it is equal to 1.6 10-19 C. The charge of any body cannot be less than this value.

If you electrify an ebonite stick with a woolen mitten, and a glass rod with a silk scarf, then hanging the sticks on threads, you can see that:

Ebonite and wool attract each other;

Glass and silk attract each other;

Glass and wool repel each other;

Ebonite and silk repel each other.

We electrify two bodies by friction, and they are charged with charges equal in magnitude and opposite in sign. Due to contact, the first body loses electrons, the other gains them. This can explain why one body will have an excess of electrons (negative charge), and the other will have a deficiency (positive charge).

Conclusion: if a body is negatively charged, then it has an excess of electrons, but if it

If it is positively charged, it has a deficiency of electrons.

Two electrified bodies attract or repel, depending on how they are electrified. Bodies that are electrified by friction always only attract.

In conductors, some electrons can move from one atom to another, this process occurs because the electrons are weakly bound to the atomic nucleus. They are called free. It is these atoms that provide charge transfer (conductivity).

There is practically no conductivity in dielectrics, because they have almost no free electrons and “no one” to transfer the charge.

By electrical properties All substances can be divided into two types:

1. Dielectrics are substances that do not have free charges and do not allow the charge of one body to “flow” to other bodies.

2. Conductors are bodies and substances in which free charged particles exist; they can move, while transferring charge to other parts of the body or to other bodies.

Based on their ability to conduct charges, substances can be divided into conductors: metals, soil, solutions of salts and acids, etc., and non-conductors (dielectrics): porcelain, hard rubber, glass, gases, plastics, etc. Semiconductors include a number of substances that whose conductivity depends on external conditions(temperature, illumination, presence of impurities).

An electrometer is a device for detecting electrical charges and determining their approximate value (Fig. 6).

To determine whether the body is charged or not, you can use an electrometer. To do this, you need to bring the body to ball A, if the body is charged, then the arrow B will deviate. Why is she deviating? Let's say the body had a negative charge, i.e. there was an excess of electrons on the body. Upon contact with the ball, some of the electrons will move to the electrometer. The ball will become negatively charged. The ball is connected to the rod and the rod is connected to the arrow, and they are all conductors, electrons will move to the rod and then to the arrow. A plastic plug will help insulate the ball, rod, arrow system. Consequently, the rod and the arrow will receive the same negative charge and will repel each other, thereby deflecting the arrow. Moreover, the greater the charge, the greater the angle of deflection of the arrow. An electrometer only allows you to estimate the amount of charge, i.e. say that one body has more charge than the other. Using an electrometer it is impossible to determine the presence of a small charge, because with a small charge, the repulsive force of like charges will not be enough to deflect the arrow, i.e. It is impossible to determine the presence of a small charge using an electrometer. Why does the arrow return to its original position in the absence of a charge? The arrow will tend to accept vertical position, since the arrow's suspension point is above the center of gravity.

A body which, after being rubbed, attracts other bodies to itself, is said to be electrified or to be given an electric charge.

Charge is the property of bodies to enter into electromagnetic interactions. A charged body is often called a charge, although a charge cannot exist in the absence of a body.

Bodies made of different substances can become electrified. Electrification of bodies occurs upon contact and subsequent separation of bodies (for example, during friction).

Two bodies are involved in electrification. In this case, both bodies are electrified.

There are two types of electric charges: “+” and “-”. Charge is denoted by q and measured in Coulombs [C].

The charge obtained on glass rubbed with silk was called positive, and the charge obtained on amber rubbed with wool was called negative.

Electrification is explained by the movement of electrons from one body to another. If a body loses 1 or more electrons, it acquires a positive charge. If a body acquires 1 or more electrons, it acquires a negative charge.

Experience shows that an electric charge can have different meaning. However, this value is a multiple of the charge 1.6·10 -19 C, which was called elementary. The charge of an electron is equal to the elementary charge taken with the “-” sign.

When electrified by friction, both bodies acquire an electric charge, and the charges are equal in magnitude, but opposite in sign. Thus, when rubbed, amber acquires a negative charge, and wool acquires an equal positive charge.

Bodies with electric charges of the same sign repel, and bodies with electric charges of the opposite sign attract each other.

The interaction of charges is explained by the fact that around any charge a electric field, which acts on another charge with a certain force. This force is proportional to the size of the charges and decreases with distance.

In the process of interaction of charges, one of the fundamental laws of nature is fulfilled - the law of conservation of electric charge: the algebraic sum of electric charges in a closed system remains constant, i.e.

q 1 + q 2 + q 3 +… + q n = const

To determine the presence of a charge on a body, a device called an electroscope is used, the action of which is based on the interaction of charged bodies. In an electroscope, a metal rod is passed through a plastic plug inserted into a metal frame, at the end of which two pieces of thin paper are attached. The frame is covered with glass on both sides. The greater the charge of the electroscope, the greater the repulsive force of the leaves, and the greater the angle they will diverge. This means that by changing the angle of the divergence of the electroscope leaves, one can judge whether its charge has increased or decreased.

Electrification of bodies is used in electrostatic painting metal products, when printing in printers, cleaning the air from dust and light particles, etc.

The electrostatic painting method allows the paint to be applied to the part being painted in a more even layer. To do this, use a spray bottle. If you place the part to be painted on the side of the paint jet, apply a positive charge to it, and apply a negative charge to the metal tube of the spray gun, connecting it to an electrophore machine, you will notice that the dye droplets become smaller and the coloring is more even.

In production and in everyday life, there are cases when electrification needs to be eliminated: at a pulp and paper mill, electrification can cause frequent breaks in a fast-moving paper belt. When it rubs against the air, the plane becomes electrified. Therefore, after landing, you cannot immediately attach a metal ladder to the plane: a discharge may occur that will cause a fire.

Ways to combat electrification: careful grounding of machines and machines; the use of conductive plastics for floors, air humidification, the use of various kinds of “neutralizers”, air ionizers. In everyday life, to combat electrification, it is enough to increase the relative air humidity in the apartment to 60-70%; or use the drug “Antistatic”.