Public administration in the appanage period (XIII-XIV centuries). Specific period

Transition to the specific period, its prerequisites and reasons

At the turn of the XI - XII centuries. The unified Old Russian state broke up into a number of separate semi-independent principalities and lands. The period of feudal fragmentation begins, or, as defined by historians of the 19th century, the appanage period in national history. It was preceded by sharp strife between the princes. For this time, strife, as a rule, ended in the victory of one, the most powerful of the princes, and the defeat, or even death, of the rest.

Relations between the princes were of a different nature after the death of Yaroslav the Wise (1054). His heirs were five surviving sons by that time: Izyaslav, Svyatoslav, Vsevolod, Igor and Vyacheslav.

Yaroslav divided the Russian land between his three eldest sons (Igor and Vyacheslav received less significant lands than the others, Vladimir-on-Volyn and Smolensk, and both soon died), creating a kind of Yaroslavich triumvirate. Izyaslav, as the eldest, received Kyiv, Veliky Novgorod and the Principality of Turov, Svyatoslav - the Chernigov land, the land of the Vyatichi, Ryazan, Murom and Tmutarakan, and Vsevolod - Pereyaslavl of Kiev, the Rostov-Suzdal land, Beloozero and the Volga region. This distribution was strange at first glance: none of the brothers had any one large principality, the lands were distributed in stripes. Moreover, Svyatoslav, who received Chernigov, located north of Kyiv, received southern lands in the northeastern part of Rus'. Vsevolod, in whose hands was Pereyaslavl of Kiev (south of Kyiv), owned the northern part of the lands of Eastern Rus'. Probably, in this way Yaroslav tried to overcome the possibility of future fragmentation, sought to create conditions under which the brothers would depend on each other and could not rule independently.

At first, the Yaroslavich triumvirate was effective: they fought together against Rostislav Vladimirovich, who captured Tmutarakan. However, he was soon poisoned by a Byzantine agent: Byzantium was afraid of increasing Russian influence in the Caucasus.

With a united front, the Yaroslavichs fought against Vseslav of Polotsk, who in 1065 tried to capture Pskov and then Novgorod.

The Yaroslavichs, speaking out against Vseslav, took Minsk in 1067, “cut down their husbands, and put their wives and children on shields (taken them captive),” and then met with Vseslav in the battle on the Nemiga River. Vseslav was defeated and, relying on the brothers’ promise “we will not do evil,” sealed by an oath—by kissing the cross—he arrived for negotiations. However, the Yaroslavichs captured Vseslav and took him to Kyiv, where they put him in a “cut” - an underground prison.

Events in subsequent years led to the collapse of the triumvirate. In 1068 on the river. Alta (not far from Pereyaslavl of Kyiv) the Polovtsians defeated the Yaroslavichs. The people of Kiev demanded weapons in order to defend themselves against the nomads, but Izyaslav was afraid to arm the townspeople. An uprising began, Izyaslav and his brother fled, and Vseslav was proclaimed prince. Svyatoslav soon completely defeated the Polovtsians, and Izyaslav, with the help of Polish troops, suppressed the uprising in Kyiv, dozens of townspeople were executed, many were blinded. Soon (1073) strife broke out between the Yaroslavichs, and Yaroslav’s grandchildren also took part in them. In the Battle of Nezhatina Niva (1078), Izyaslav died, and Vsevolod became the Grand Duke.

After his death (1093), Izyaslav’s son Svyatopolk ascended the throne. However, endless strife continued. In 1097, on the initiative of Vsevolod’s son, the Pereyaslavl prince Vladimir Monomakh, a princely congress met in Lyubech. The princes expressed regret over the strife, which benefits only the Polovtsians, who “carry our land separately, and for the sake of the essence, there are armies between us,” decided to be unanimous from now on (“we have one heart”) and established a completely new principle of organizing power in Rus': "Everyone must keep his fatherland." Thus, the Russian land was no longer considered a single possession of the entire princely house, but was a collection of separate “fatherlands”, hereditary possessions of the branches of the princely house. The establishment of this principle legally consolidated the already begun division of the Russian land into separate principalities - “fatherland”, and consolidated feudal fragmentation.

However, it was easier for the princes to divide the land than to become unanimous. In the same 1097, Yaroslav’s grandsons Davyd and Svyatopolk lured and blinded the Terebovl prince Vasilko, and then went to war with each other. A new round has begun feudal war. During these bloody strife, it was not only the princes who exterminated each other. The theater of military operations was the entire Russian land. The princes attracted foreign military forces to help: the Poles, the Polovtsians, the Torks, and the Black Berendeys.

For some time, however, the strife stopped thanks to the activities of Vladimir Monomakh. The circumstances of his appearance on the Kiev throne were as follows. In 1113, Grand Duke Svyatopolk Izyaslavich died in Kyiv. During his lifetime, he was very unpopular: unscrupulous in his means of enrichment, he speculated in salt and bread, and patronized moneylenders. His death was marked by powerful popular uprising. The Kievans destroyed the courtyard of Putyati, a thousand* close to Svyatopolk, and the courtyards of the moneylenders. The Kyiv boyars turned to Vladimir Vsevolodovich Monomakh with a request to take the grand-ducal throne. This sixty-year-old prince, the female grandson of the Byzantine Emperor Constantine Monomakh (hence his nickname), enjoyed deserved popularity in Rus'. The inspirer and leader of many campaigns against the Polovtsians, a man who persistently spoke out against strife at princely congresses, widely educated, literary gifted, he was precisely the person who could reduce the discontent of the lower classes. And in fact, having become the prince of Kyiv, Vladimir Monomakh significantly eased the situation of purchases, giving them the right to leave their master in order to earn money and return the “kupa”, introduced responsibility for turning purchases into a complete slave, and lowered the maximum usurious interest rate for long-term loans from 33 to 20 percent and prohibited turning free people into slaves for debts. The reign of Vladimir Monomakh (1113 - 1125) and his son Mstislav the Great (1125 - 1132) was a time of restoration of unity Old Russian state.

However, the centrifugal forces turned out to be irresistible. Feudal fragmentation has set in. One cannot imagine feudal fragmentation as a kind of feudal anarchy. Moreover, princely strife in a single state, when it came to the struggle for power, for the grand princely throne or certain rich principalities and cities, were sometimes more bloody than during the period of feudal fragmentation. What happened was not the collapse of the Old Russian state, but its transformation into a kind of federation of principalities headed by the Grand Duke of Kyiv, although his power was weakening all the time and was rather nominal. Relations between the princes were regulated by the then existing customary law and agreements concluded between them. The goal of the strife during the period of fragmentation was already different than in a single state: not the seizure of power in the entire country, but the strengthening of one’s principality, the expansion of its borders at the expense of its neighbors.

The process of feudal fragmentation of the once vast empire is characteristic not only of Rus', but of all countries of Europe and Asia. This is an objective process associated with the general course of both economic and socio-political development. The Old Russian state was never completely unified. Under the general dominance of natural economy, strong economic ties between individual lands did not exist and could not exist. On the other hand, it would be incorrect to consider that they were economically completely isolated from each other.

In addition, with the awareness of the unity of the Russian land in Kievan Rus Remnants of tribal isolation continued to exist. Thus, the author of “The Tale of Bygone Years” speaks with irony about the Ilmen Slavs, with disdain for the Drevlyans, Krivichi, Vyatichi, Radimichi, and only characterizes the tribal union of the Polyans, to which he himself belonged, in the most flattering way: “men are wise and understanding.” The rest of the “tribes,” according to him, lived in a “beastly manner,” “bestial.”

However, neither the lack of strong economic ties nor tribal strife prevented this in the 9th century. the unification of East Slavic tribal unions into a single state and for almost three centuries did not lead to its collapse. The reasons for the transition to feudal fragmentation should be sought primarily in the emergence and spread of feudal land ownership, not only princely, but also private, the emergence of boyar villages. The basis of the economic power of the ruling class now becomes not tribute, but the exploitation of feudal-dependent peasants within the boyar estates. This process of gradual settling of the squad on the ground forced the prince to be less mobile, to strive to strengthen his own principality, and not to move to a new princely table.

Other reasons for the transition to feudal fragmentation were the growth of cities and the development of individual lands, which made them more independent of Kyiv. Instead of one center, several appear.

The number of principalities was constantly changing, as each of them broke up into new ones during family divisions. On the other hand, there were also cases when neighboring principalities united. Therefore, we can list only the main principalities and lands: Kiev, Pereyaslavl, Turovo-Pinsk, Polotsk, Galicia and Volynsk (later united into Galicia-Volynsk), Rostov-Suzdal (later Vladimir-Suzdal). The Novgorod land with its republican system stood apart. In the 13th century The Pskov land, also republican, emerged from it.

Of the large number of principalities into which the Old Russian state broke up, the largest were the Vladimir-Suzdal, Galician-Volyn principalities and the Novgorod land. Developing as feudal states, these formations essentially represented different types statehood that arose from the ruins of Kievan Rus. The Vladimir-Suzdal principality became characterized by strong princely power, genetically connected with the autocracy that later established itself in the northeast. A republican system was established in the Novgorod land: the veche and the boyars dominated here over the prince, who was often expelled from the city - “they showed the way.” The Galician-Volyn principality was characterized by a confrontation between the traditionally strong boyars and princely power. Given the determining importance of the state in Russian history, these differences had a significant impact on the course of events, since they turned out to be connected with the real capabilities of the authorities to determine the historical destinies of these regions.

At the same time, with the onset of feudal fragmentation, the consciousness of the unity of the Russian land was not lost. The appanage principalities continued to live according to the laws of the Dimensional Truth, with a single metropolitan, within the framework of a kind of federation, even capable of joint defense of borders. Later, this factor would play an important role in the process of gathering lands around several principality centers laying claim to the Kiev heritage.

Feudal fragmentation is a natural stage in the development of feudalism. It contributed to the identification and development of new centers and the strengthening of feudal relations. But, like any historical movement, it also had negative sides: with the weakening and then collapse of unity, the ability of the ethnos to effectively resist external danger decreased.

Lecture, abstract. Public administration in the specific period (XIII-XIV centuries) - concept and types. Classification, essence and features.

" back Table of contents in comparison with Western Europe»">forward »
3. The emergence of the Old Russian state. Public administration in Kievan Rus (IX-XII centuries) « | » 4.1 Features of the statehood of North-Eastern Rus'
compared to Western Europe

From the second half of the 11th century. In Rus', new processes begin, characterized, first of all, by the disintegration of the hitherto unified state into separate, in fact, independent lands.

For a long time, Soviet historical science explained the reasons for fragmentation by the growing class struggle of peasants against the exploiters, which forced the latter to keep the forces necessary to suppress it locally, as a result of which the independence and authority of local princes increased. Another reason - already of an economic nature - was the dominance of a subsistence (closed) economy.

However, the above reasons do not very well explain the collapse of Rus'. Firstly, we have almost no data on any major mass uprisings of the 11th - 12th centuries (with the exception of news of events in Suzdal land in 1024 and 1071, or in Kiev in 1068, where unrest was very difficult to define as class), and secondly, the natural nature of the economy is characteristic of both appanage and united Rus', and, therefore, this fact in itself cannot explain anything.

As for pre-Soviet historiography, it cited as the main reason for the collapse the erroneous decision of Yaroslav the Wise to divide the lands of the Kyiv state between his sons. However, this statement is also vulnerable to criticism: after all, even before Yaroslav, the princes made similar divisions, but Rus' maintained its unity.

Apparently, it is impossible to get an answer to the question about the reasons for the collapse without understanding what dictated the very unity of the state and how its main functions changed over time.

Ancient Rus' was united, first of all, thanks to the common desire for predatory campaigns against Byzantium. However, by the end of the 10th century. the benefits in the form of booty and tribute began to be noticeably inferior in importance to the benefits received from the development of ordinary trade, which became possible, firstly, thanks to the conclusion of trade agreements with the Byzantine Empire, and secondly, due to the increase in wealth in the hands of the prince (from in whose name, in fact, Russian merchants traded), caused by the increase in the collection of tribute taxes after the stabilization of relations within the state. Thus, the need to carry out military campaigns against Byzantium practically disappeared, which led to their complete cessation.

It was also possible to stabilize relations with the “steppe”. Svyatoslav had already defeated the Khazars, Vladimir and Yaroslav actually put an end to the Pechenegs, and only the Polovtsians continued to harass Rus' with their raids. However, the forces of the Polovtsians were very small, so there was no need to attract troops of the entire Old Russian state to confront them. Moreover, even those relatively small squads that opposed the Polovtsians inflicted such impressive blows that by the end of the 12th - beginning of the 13th centuries. The Polovtsians found themselves in vassal dependence on Rus' (more precisely, on the southern Russian princes).

Concerning internal functions, then they are really with great success could be carried out within separate, relatively small territories. Complication public life did not require rare appearances of a judge-arbiter from the center, but daily regulation. Local interests increasingly capture the princes sitting in individual lands, who begin to identify them with their own interests.

Thus, by the end of the 11th century. the obvious disappearance of those common, uniting interests that had previously cemented the state quite firmly was revealed. Other connecting threads, say, economic ones (here, it is worth remembering the natural nature of the economy), simply did not exist. That is why Rus', having lost most of what connected it, fell apart.

However, the collapse was not absolute. Along with this centrifugal tendency, centripetal ones also persisted. They were expressed, in particular, in maintaining the prestige of the title of Grand Duke of Kyiv (although it no longer plays a real unifying role). In addition, the princes from time to time found it necessary to gather at their inter-princely congresses to discuss emerging common problems.

And yet the main trend was undoubtedly centrifugal. The main principle of the collapse was already fixed at the first inter-princely congress in Lyubech in 1097: “everyone holds his own patrimony.”

At the same time, the statehood of Rus', of course, did not disappear, it simply moved to a new level - land. Accordingly, changes have occurred in power structures.

At the land level, two main types of organization of power have formed, which can be conditionally defined as “republican” and “monarchical”. However, the most important elements of these systems are the same: the veche, the prince, the boyars. But the ratio of these elements in the political systems of various Russian lands is very different.

If in the Novgorod land, traditionally classified as a “feudal republic,” the leading role was played by the veche and boyars, while the prince performed only the functions of a military leader and guarantor of the judicial system (and an agreement was concluded with him, failure to comply with which threatened him with expulsion), then in In the principalities, on the contrary, the leading positions were occupied by the prince and his boyar advisers, while the veche could only temporarily acquire a noticeable influence on the government (as a rule, spontaneously from below, or in the event of a conflict between the prince and the boyars).

The most stable positions within the framework of Ancient Rus' in the 12th century. occupied Novgorod and the Vladimir-Suzdal principality. But, if Novgorod never laid claim to leading roles in the political life of Rus', then the Vladimir princes (Yuri Dolgoruky, Andrei Bogolyubsky) very actively fought with other princes both for individual territories and for obtaining leading positions (if not supremacy in general) among other Russian lands. However, the process of disintegration gradually takes hold of the Vladimir Principality, which, like others, begins to plunge into the abyss of strife.

In general, inter-princely strife is almost main theme chronicles and works of literature of the 12th - 13th centuries, which often creates a distorted idea of ​​them as the main feature of the appanage period, painting an image of the gradual decline of Rus', becoming a defenseless victim of any more or less strong enemy. Sometimes one gets the impression of the fatal inevitability of the death of the Old Russian state. In fact, the influence of strife on the development of Ancient Rus' is clearly exaggerated.

The appanage period not only was not a time of decline, but, on the contrary, meant the flourishing of the Old Russian state and, above all, in the sphere of culture.

Of course, strife weakened unity, and therefore the possibility of joint resistance to a major enemy, but in the foreseeable space such an enemy did not exist in Rus'.

The collapse of the Old Russian state, thus, looks like a natural stage in the development of Old Russian statehood, forming more developed state structures, laying the foundations for the emergence of a society independent of the state, influencing state policy.

A new form of state organization in Ancient Rus' was feudal fragmentation, which replaced the early feudal monarchy. It did not mean regression in development, i.e. reverse movements. The division of the grandiose early feudal empires into a number of sovereign states was an inevitable stage in the development of feudalism both in Kievan Rus, and in Europe and Asia.

The entire feudal state of Ancient Rus' was a collection of many princely and boyar estates leading an independent economic life, free from state control. The distant Kiev government could, to a very small extent, unite these independent patrimonial worlds. The development of princely and boyar land ownership was accompanied by the establishment of economic and legal dependence of the agricultural population on the feudal lords and the feudal state. This process required a strong local princely power, independent of support from Kyiv, with its own army, capable of independently solving new problems. Local dynasties were more interested in the economic development of their possessions than the former governors of the Kyiv prince.

In place of the Old Russian state - Kievan Rus - a dozen independent principalities and lands arose, each of which was assigned to a separate branch of the Rurik dynasty. The title of Grand Duke was now held not only by the Kyiv princes, but also by other princes of independent fiefs.

The largest were the Vladimir-Suzdal, Galician-Vodyn principalities and the Novgorod land. As feudal states they had their own distinctive features related to features historical development. The Vladimir-Suzdal principality was characterized by strong princely power, genetically related to the autocracy that later established itself in the northeast. A republican system was established in the Novgorod land, where the veche (assembly of Novgorodians) and the boyars dominated the prince. The Galician-Volyn principality was characterized by opposition to the traditionally strong boyars and princely power.

The Vladimir-Suzdal (originally Rostov-Suzdal) principality was located in the northeast of Rus', between the Oka and Volga rivers. Among the factors that contributed to its separation from the Kyiv state, one should mention the presence of profitable trade routes passing through its territory. The most important of them was the Volga trade route, which connected northeastern Rus' with the countries of the East. At the confluence of the Oka River in the Volga in 1221, Nizhny Novgorod was founded - the largest trading center in the east of the principality. The major cities were Rostov, Suzdal, Murom, Vladimir-on-Klyazma, Yaroslavl, Kostroma, and later Moscow.

The territory of the principality was well protected from external enemies by natural barriers - forests and rivers. Constant influx of population in the XI-XII centuries. from the southern Russian principalities in search of protection from the Polovtsian danger and from the north-west in search of new industries contributed to the economic rise of the principality. A feature of the region was the predominance rural population above the urban and natural economy above the monetary and commodity economy. The local cities never achieved such economic power as the cities of the Kyiv and Novgorod lands, and part of their population was engaged in agriculture on a par with the rural population.

In the Rostov-Suzdal land, the capital of which was Suzdal, the son of Vladimir Monomakh, Yuri Dolgoruky (1125-1157), reigned, who received his nickname for his ambitious desire to subjugate Kyiv. He managed to capture Kyiv twice - in 1149 and 1155. The first chronicle mention of Moscow, built on the site of the former estate of the boyar Kuchka, where in 1147 Yuri met with the Chernigov prince, an ally in the feudal war, is associated with his name - Yuri’s son Andrei Bogolyubsky (1157-1174) was known in Rus' as a talented commander and autocratic statesman. He moved the capital to Vladimirna-Klyazma, which instead of Kyiv became the seat of the eldest and most powerful Russian prince. The white-stone Golden Gate and the majestic Assumption Cathedral were erected here. Not far from the new capital! Principality Andrei founded his country residence Bogolyubovo, where he devoted a lot of time to prayers. The prince received his nickname from the name of the residence. Having left Kyiv while his father was still alive, he took with him the miraculous side of the Mother of God, considered the intercessor of Rus', known as Vladimir (now, as it is said, it is kept in the Tretyakov Gallery). The establishment of the cult of the Mother of God seemed to contrast the Vladimir-Suzdal principality with the Kiev and Novgorod lands, where the main cult was the cult of St. Sophia (Divine Wisdom).

The economic rise of the northeastern lands led to the emergence of a strong local boyars here. The struggle between the princely power and the boyars ended in favor of the prince during the reign of another son of Yuri - Vsevolod the Big Nest (1176-1212). Power in the principality was finally established in the form of a monarchy. The change in the nature of princely power and the relationship between the prince and the boyars was expressed in the fact that the prince sees himself as an independent owner and full owner of all the land in his principality and disposes of it at his own discretion. Vsevolod was the most powerful of the Russian princes, and, apparently, it was then that the title of Grand Duke of Vladimir appeared.

The names of Andrei Bogolyubsky and Vsevolod the Big Nest are associated with the political and economic rise of northeastern Rus'. The rulers of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality tried to subjugate Kyiv, Novgorod and other Russian lands. Their policy reflected the tendency to unite all Russian lands under the rule of one prince.

The Galicia-Volyn land was located in the southwest of Rus'. Its major cities were Galich, Vladimir-Volynsky, Berestye (Brest), Lvov, etc. The neighborhood with Hungary, Poland, and the Czech Republic made it possible to conduct active foreign trade. Convenient geographical position and relative safety from nomads allowed the principalities to take one of the leading places among the Russian lands and achieve significant economic growth. Thanks to the exceptionally fertile land, feudal land ownership arose and flourished here relatively early. Southwestern Rus' is especially characterized by a rich and influential boyars, often opposing themselves to the princes. The political claims of the local boyars arose partly under the influence of constant communication with the powerful feudal aristocracy of Poland and Hungary; they sought to seize political power and turn princely power into their obedient instrument.

After the separation from Kyiv, the principality of Galicia with its center in Galich and Volyn with its center in Vladimir-Volynsky existed as independent principalities. The rise of the Galician principality is associated with the name of Yaroslav Osmomysl (1153-1187), who received the nickname for his knowledge of eight foreign languages. In 1159, his squads were daring? capture Kyiv.

Under Roman Mstislavich (1170-1205), the unification of the Galician and Volyn principalities took place. In 1203, Roman Mstislavich also managed to temporarily capture Kyiv and assume the title of Grand Duke. One of the largest states in Europe was formed, and the Pope even invited Roman Mstislavich to accept the royal title. His son Daniil Romanovich (1221 -1264) dealt with the boyar opposition and became one of the most powerful princes of Rus'. Prince Daniil re-occupied Kyiv in 1240 and managed to unite southwestern Rus' and the Kyiv land, but the Mongol invasion put an end to this process. Daniel did not recognize himself as a subject for a long time Mongol Khan and avoided going to the Horde, and having done this, he exclaimed: “Oh, Tatar honor is more evil than evil?” Upon returning to Galich, the thought of the need to fight the Mongols did not leave him; he even tried to get the Pope as an ally. Pope Innocent sent Daniel signs of royal dignity - a crown and a scepter, wanting to unite Orthodox Church with the Catholic one, but did not provide real assistance in the fight against the Mongols.

In the middle of the 14th century. the Grand Dukes of Lithuania captured Volyn, and Poland took possession of Galicia.o:p>

The Novgorod land was especially noticeably separated by natural boundaries from the rest of the Russian lands. The Novgorod boyar republic occupied a vast territory in the north-west of Rus', and Novgorod the Great became the political, commercial and cultural center of the entire ancient Russian North. The rise of Novgorod was facilitated by exceptionally favorable foreign policy conditions: the city was located at the center of the intersection of trade routes connecting Europe with Russia, and through it with the East and Byzantium. The closest trade ties existed between Novgorod and the North German Hanseatic cities (from the German Hansa - union), which controlled the Baltic coast.

Novgorod was the main supplier of valuable furs to Europe - marten, sable, beaver, and fox. Medieval Europe had a huge demand for these furs, which were not only used to make warm clothing, but also served as a favorite decoration and emphasized the nobility of the owner. Already in the 12th century. in Novgorod there was the so-called “Gothic court” (founded by merchants from the island of Gotland in the Baltic Sea), the German merchant court, which played a major role in Novgorod foreign trade as the Hanseatic League strengthened, and the Catholic Church of St. Peter. Novgorod became a city of world significance and, earlier than other ancient Russian cities, began the struggle for independence from Kyiv.

The political rise of the Novgorod land and its separation from Kyiv was facilitated by the presence of a huge land fund that fell into the hands of the local boyars. However, due to the harsh climate and the dominance of forests, agriculture here was less developed than in other lands. Therefore, Novgorod did not have enough of its own grain, which was brought mainly from the Rostov-Suzdal land, which created economic dependence of Novgorod on other Russian lands. The underdevelopment of agriculture was more than compensated for by the abundance of other natural resources: deposits of table salt that came to the surface in springs near the White Sea, an abundance of fur-bearing animals, wild boars and elk, valuable species of fish, as well as soft-melting swamp ores suitable for the production of iron, which led to the flourishing of crafts and trade in Novgorod land.

Since the time of Rurik, Novgorod was characterized by the calling of a prince to the throne. The prince always played a second role - there was no own princely dynasty here. The residence of the prince was located outside the walls of the Kremlin, initially in the trading part of the city, and later outside the city, on the so-called Gorodishche. As a rule, during the division of lands, Novgorod passed to the eldest of the princes - the one who became the heir to the Kyiv throne. This allowed the eldest of the Rurikovichs to control the great trade route “from the Varangians to the Greeks.” Unlike other Russian lands, in which power was established in the form of a feudal monarchy. Novgorod became a boyar republic. The concentration of the Novgorod boyars in one political center facilitated the task of their internal consolidation in the form of an oligarchy to limit the power of the prince.

The highest body of the republic was the veche, and at which the Novgorod government was elected. They chose the main figure of the city administration - the mayor, as well as the thousand in charge of the people's militia and the lord - the head of the Novgorod church - the bishop (later the archbishop), who was in charge of the treasury and foreign relations.

Using the uprising of the Novgorodians in 1136, who drove out the prince, the boyars, who had significant economic power, managed to finally defeat the prince in the struggle for power and began, with the help of the veche, to invite the princes on conditions that prohibited interference in the internal affairs of the Novgorod government. Thus, the Novgorod boyar republic was a state in which power actually belonged to feudal lords, who used the elected rulers of this republic to their advantage.

Political fragmentation did not mean a severance of ties between the Russian lands and did not lead to their cultural disunity. The integrity of ancient Russian culture was preserved thanks to the unity of religious views and the church, the unity of language, literature and law, and the awareness of a common historical destiny. Kyiv retained its importance as the first among equal principality-states.

Political fragmentation, weakening Rus' in military-political terms, raised Russian medieval culture to new heights, giving rise to a variety of art schools with their own architectural, painting, chronicle and literary styles. By the middle of the 12th century. Byzantine influence in architecture gradually weakened. Tower-shaped churches appeared in Polotsk, Smolensk, and Chernigov. Local traditions were most active in the Novgorod and Vladimir-Suzdal lands.

A cultural dialogue was established with European countries. Individual elements of the Romanesque style, which dominated in the 11th-12th centuries, penetrated stone architecture. in both Western and Eastern Europe. These were arcature belts, like buttresses on external walls, groups of half-columns and pilasters, sometimes with carved capitals (the top of a column) and consoles (a wall projection on which a statue stands, a cornice, a balcony), columnar belts on the walls, perspective portals (entrances) , masonry made of smoothly polished “white stone” blocks.

During the construction of the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir and the princely chambers in Bogolyubovo, “masters from all lands” worked, including “Latins” (immigrants from Western Europe). Russian masters introduced originality into the techniques adopted from the “Latins”. Transferring the traditions of wooden carving to stone, they made the bizarre stone carvings flatter and more ornamental and chose completely different subjects, preferring the motifs of “world harmony” to the paintings of the “Last Judgment.”

The influence of the Romanesque style especially intensified by the beginning of the 13th century, but it did not affect the foundations of ancient Russian architecture - the cross-domed cubic design of temples with roof coverings. The exceptions were those built in the XII-XIII centuries. round churches in the Galicia-Volyn land. From the middle of the 13th century. the fruitful process of interaction between Russian and Western architectural styles was interrupted by the establishment Mongol yoke. In Western Europe during this period, the Romanesque style gave way to the Gothic, which remained alien to Russian architecture. Only in the St. George Cathedral of Yuriev-Polsky and in some Novgorod churches - Fyodor Stratilates and the Transfiguration on Ilyin Street - were individual Gothic elements uniquely reworked and organically included in the Russian architectural style - pointed zakomaras and lancet perspective portals and window completions.

The influence of Byzantium in painting was longer and more stable. From the 12th century Two traditions of decorating churches with paintings begin to be defined: a more strict, solemn one, coming from Byzantium (the image of the Virgin Mary Oranta in the Cathedral of St. Sophia of Kyiv), and a more free, soulful and soft one, which developed on Russian soil (the interior of the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir). Gradually, ancient Russian painting acquired its own artistic language. A masterpiece of ancient Russian painting of the 12th century. - “Angel of Golden Hair,” depicting the Archangel Gabriel, provides an example of a new aesthetics, a more enlightened, peaceful and life-affirming vision of the world.

In the painting one can trace individual elements of secularism that came from Byzantium. artistic creativity, associated with the cult of the basileus and the glorification of the empire, such as, for example, various scenes of wall paintings on the stairs of the two towers of the Cathedral of St. Sophia of Kyiv, depicting the life and customs of the Kyiv grand princely environment.

Whoever comes to us with a sword will die by the sword.

Alexander Nevskiy

Udelnaya Rus' originates in 1132, when Mstislav the Great dies, which leads the country to a new internecine war, the consequences of which had a huge impact on the entire state. As a result of subsequent events, independent principalities emerged. IN Russian literature this period is also called fragmentation, since at the heart of all events was the disunion of lands, each of which was actually an independent state. Of course, the dominant position of the Grand Duke was preserved, but this was already a nominal figure rather than a truly significant one.

The period of feudal fragmentation in Rus' lasted almost 4 centuries, during which the country underwent strong changes. They affected both the device and everyday life, and cultural practices peoples of Russia. As a result of the isolated actions of the princes, Rus' for many years found itself branded with a yoke, which was only possible to get rid of after the rulers of the destinies began to unite around a common goal - the overthrow of the power of the Golden Horde. In this material we will look at the main distinctive features appanage Rus', as an independent state, as well as the main features of the lands included in it.

The main reasons for feudal fragmentation in Rus' stem from the historical, economic and political processes that were taking place in the country at that point in time. The following main reasons for the formation of Appanage Rus' and fragmentation can be identified:

This whole set of measures led to the fact that the causes of feudal fragmentation in Rus' turned out to be very significant and led to irreversible consequences that almost put the very existence of the state at stake.

Fragmentation at a certain historical stage is a normal phenomenon that almost any state has encountered, but in Rus' there were certain distinctive features in this process. First of all, it should be noted that literally all the princes who ruled the estates were from one ruling dynasty. There was nothing like this anywhere else in the world. There have always been rulers who held power by force, but had no historical claims to it. In Russia, almost any prince could be chosen as chief. Secondly, the loss of the capital should be noted. No, formally Kyiv retained a leading role, but this was only formal. At the beginning of this era still Prince of Kyiv was dominant over everyone, other destinies paid him taxes (whoever could). But literally within a few decades this changed, since first the Russian princes took the previously impregnable Kyiv by storm, and after that the Mongol-Tatars literally destroyed the city. By this time, the Grand Duke was the representative of the city of Vladimir.

Appanage Rus' - consequences of existence

Any historical event has its own causes and consequences, which leave one or another imprint on the processes occurring within the state during such achievements, as well as after them. The collapse of the Russian lands in this regard was no exception and revealed a number of consequences that were formed as a result of the emergence of individual appanages:

1. Uniform population of the country. This is one of the positive aspects that was achieved due to the fact that the southern lands became the object of constant wars. As a result, the main population was forced to flee to the northern regions to find safety. If by the time the state of Udelnaya Rus was formed, the northern regions were practically deserted, then by the end of the 15th century the situation had already changed radically.
2. Development of cities and their arrangement. This point also includes economic, spiritual, and craft innovations that appeared in the principalities. This is due to a rather simple thing - the princes were full-fledged rulers in their lands, to maintain which it was necessary to develop a natural economy so as not to depend on their neighbors.
3. The appearance of vassals. Because the unified system, providing security to all principalities, there was no weak lands were forced to accept the status of vassals. Of course, there was no talk of any oppression, but such lands did not have independence, since in many issues they were forced to adhere to the point of view of a stronger ally.
4. Decrease in the country's defense capability. The individual squads of the princes were quite strong, but still not numerous. In battles with equal opponents they could win, but strong enemies individually they could easily cope with each of the armies. Batu’s campaign clearly demonstrated this when the princes, in an attempt to defend their lands alone, did not dare to join forces. The result is widely known - 2 centuries of yoke and the murder of a huge number of Russians.
5. Impoverishment of the country's population. Such consequences resulted not only external enemies, but also internal. Against the backdrop of the yoke and constant attempts by Livonia and Poland to seize Russian possessions, internecine wars do not stop. They are still large-scale and destructive. In such a situation, as always, the common population suffered. This was one of the reasons for the migration of peasants to the north of the country. This is how one of the first mass migrations of people took place, which gave birth to appanage Rus'.

We see that the consequences of the feudal fragmentation of Russia are far from clear-cut. They have both negative and positive sides. Moreover, it should be remembered that this process is characteristic not only of Rus'. All countries have gone through it in one form or another. Ultimately, the destinies united anyway and created a strong state capable of ensuring its own security.

The collapse of Kievan Rus led to the emergence of 14 independent principalities, each of which had its own capital, its own prince and army. The largest of them were the Novgorod, Vladimir-Suzdal, Galician-Volyn principalities. It should be noted that in Novgorod a political system that was unique at that time was formed - a republic. Appanage Rus' became a unique state of its time.

Features of the Vladimir-Suzdal Principality

This lot was located in the northeastern part of the country. Its inhabitants were mainly engaged in agriculture and cattle breeding, which was facilitated by favorable natural conditions. The largest cities in the principality were Rostov, Suzdal and Vladimir. As for the latter, it became the main city of the country after Batu captured Kyiv.

The peculiarity of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality is that for many years it maintained its dominant position, and Grand Duke ruled from these lands. As for the Mongols, they also recognized the power of this center, allowing its ruler to personally collect tribute for them from all destinies. There are a lot of guesses on this matter, but we can still say with confidence that Vladimir was the capital of the country for a long time.

Features of the Galicia-Volyn Principality

It was located in the southwest of Kyiv, the peculiarities of which were that it was one of the largest in its time. The largest cities of this inheritance were Vladimir Volynsky and Galich. Their significance was quite high, both for the region and for the state as a whole. Locals for the most part they were engaged in crafts, which allowed them to actively trade with other principalities and states. At the same time, become important shopping centers these cities could not, due to their geographical location.

Unlike most appanages, in Galicia-Volyn, as a result of fragmentation, wealthy landowners very quickly emerged, who had a huge influence on the actions of the local prince. This land was subject to frequent raids, primarily from Poland.

Principality of Novgorod

Novgorod is a unique city and a unique destiny. The special status of this city dates back to the formation of the Russian state. It was here that it originated, and its inhabitants have always been freedom-loving and wayward. As a result, they often changed princes, keeping only the most worthy ones. During the Tatar-Mongol yoke, it was this city that became the stronghold of Rus', a city that the enemy was never able to take. The Principality of Novgorod once again became a symbol of Russia and a land that contributed to their unification.

The largest city of this principality was Novgorod, which was guarded by the Torzhok fortress. The special position of the principality led to rapid development trade. As a result, it was one of the richest cities in the country. In terms of its size, it also occupied a leading place, second only to Kyiv, but unlike the ancient capital, the Novgorod principality did not lose its independence.

Significant dates

History is, first of all, dates that can tell better than any words what happened in each specific segment of human development. Speaking about feudal fragmentation, we can highlight the following key dates:

• 1185 - Prince Igor made a campaign against the Polovtsians, immortalized in the “Tale of Igor’s Campaign”
• 1223 – Battle of the Kalka River
• 1237 - the first Mongol invasion, which led to the conquest of Appanage Rus'
• July 15, 1240 – Battle of the Neva
• April 5, 1242 – Battle on the Ice
• 1358 – 1389 – The Grand Duke of Russia was Dmitry Donskoy
• July 15, 1410 – Battle of Grunwald
• 1480 - great stand on the Ugra River
• 1485 – annexation of the Tver principality to the Moscow one
• 1505-1534 - the reign of Vasily 3, which was marked by the liquidation of the last inheritances
• 1534 - the reign of Ivan 4, the Terrible, begins.