How to grow a crystal. Great encyclopedia of oil and gas

Salts are organic and inorganic chemical substances of complex composition. In chemical theory there is no strict and final definition of salts. They can be described as compounds:
- consisting of anions and cations;
— obtained as a result of the interaction of acids and bases;
- consisting of acidic residues and metal ions.

Acidic residues can be associated not with metal atoms, but with ammonium ions (NH 4) +, phosphonium (PH 4) +, hydronium (H 3 O) + and some others.

Types of salts

- Acid, medium, basic. If all the hydrogen protons in an acid are replaced by metal ions, then such salts are called medium salts, for example, NaCl. If hydrogen is only partially replaced, then such salts are acidic, for example. KHSO 4 and NaH 2 PO 4. If the hydroxyl groups (OH) of the base are not completely replaced by the acidic residue, then the salt is basic, for example. CuCl(OH), Al(OH)SO 4 .

- Simple, double, mixed. Simple salts consist of one metal and one acid residue, for example, K 2 SO 4. Double salts contain two metals, for example KAl(SO 4) 2. Mixed salts have two acidic residues, e.g. AgClBr.

— Organic and inorganic.
— Complex salts with a complex ion: K 2 , Cl 2 and others.
— Crystal hydrates and crystal solvates.
— Crystalline hydrates with molecules of water of crystallization. CaSO 4 *2H 2 O.
— Crystal solvates with solvent molecules. For example, LiCl in liquid ammonia NH 3 gives LiCl*5NH 3 solvate.
— Oxygen-containing and oxygen-free.
— Internal, otherwise called bipolar ions.

Properties

Most salts are solids with a high melting point and do not conduct electricity. Solubility in water - important characteristic, on its basis, reagents are divided into water-soluble, slightly soluble and insoluble. Many salts dissolve in organic solvents.

Salts react:
- with more active metals;
- with acids, bases, and other salts, if the interaction produces substances that do not participate in further reactions, for example, gas, insoluble precipitate, water. They decompose when heated and hydrolyze in water.

In nature, salts are widely distributed in the form of minerals, brines, and salt deposits. They are also extracted from sea water and mountain ores.

Salts are necessary for the human body. Iron salts are needed to replenish hemoglobin, calcium - participate in the formation of the skeleton, magnesium - regulate the activity of the gastrointestinal tract.

Application of salts

Salts are actively used in production, everyday life, agriculture, medicine, food industry, chemical synthesis and analysis, in laboratory practice. Here are just a few areas of their application:

— Sodium, potassium, calcium and ammonium nitrates (saltpeter); calcium phosphate, Potassium chloride is a raw material for the production of fertilizers.
— Sodium chloride is necessary for the production of table salt; it is used in the chemical industry for the production of chlorine, soda, and caustic soda.
— Sodium hypochlorite is a popular bleach and water disinfectant.
— Salts acetic acid(acetates) are used in the food industry as preservatives (potassium and calcium acetate); in medicine for the manufacture of drugs, in the cosmetics industry (sodium acetate), for many other purposes.
— Potassium-aluminum and potassium-chromium alums are in demand in medicine and the food industry; for dyeing fabrics, leather, furs.
— Many salts are used as fixatives for determining chemical composition substances, water quality, acidity level, etc.

Our store offers a wide range of salts, both organic and inorganic.

The most common salt in our country (sodium chloride) is obtained from the mineral Halite (from the Greek Αλίτης - salt), consisting almost entirely of the same NaCl.
But this “almost” makes the difference. The natural mineral comes in different color shades depending on the admixtures of other minerals and microorganisms, as well as the surrounding clay rocks and sandstones - white, bluish-gray, pink, cherry-red, yellow-brown. The color intensity depends on the ratio of pure halite and mechanical impurities in crystals.

Himalayan salt (Pakistan)

For example, the fashionable “Himalayan salt” from salt mines in Pakistan contains about 92% halite, the rest being impurities. Mainly - iron oxides such as banal rust - brown iron ores, hematite and magnetite.
Most of the salt mined here is refined into regular white salt. Part of the salt mined in the deposit is subjected only to primary purification - washing, drying and crushing, and is supplied to the market in the form of fine light or deep pink powder or crystals. Pink color salt does not play any significance and has no role, does not affect either the taste or smell, providing only aesthetic pleasure to lovers of pink. :)) Well, its large crystals also look amazing next to pink pepper in the mill.

Black salt (India)

Similar in appearance to it, “black salt” from a deposit in India (Darjeeling?) Kala Namak contains, in addition to iron compounds, a large amount of sulfates and sodium sulfides and other elements, which causes the specific smell of uh... hard-boiled eggs, which, naturally, reduces its popularity in the world market. On the other hand, we can say that this is her piquant distinctive feature.

These two salts can be used with with a pure heart classified as natural mineral salts. And here is another fashionable red salt from the Hawaiian Islands - a product of artificial mixing of Hawaiian clay and sea ​​salt. There is a touching unity, so to speak, of the chemicals of the sea and the land.

In Russia, the bulk of halite, mined from salt lakes or from underground, is refined by boiling brine, figuratively speaking, obtaining carbon from diamond.

The smaller part is left as is in the form of grayish salt, ground No. 1.

But we also want colorful salt. And we have them.

Black salt with the addition of activated carbon is produced by several companies, positioning the product as the legendary “Thursday salt”, almost completely forgotten. Trying to create a diamond back from carbon.

We are not alone in this celebration of life. Black lava salt with activated carbon produced in Cyprus and Hawaii. Of course, for the purpose of market promotion, it is also positioned as an active detoxifier with a unique taste and a very decorative effect.
By the way, the visual effect will be even more beautiful if you mix it with paprika flakes.

The same sodium chloride constitutes the main salt component of all seas and oceans, as well as salt lakes and groundwater. So sea salt is the same NaCl and all the mineral plus organic company, which together make up up to 98% of the composition of the salt.
Typically, sea water is bitter-salty, depending on the minerals dissolved in it - potassium and magnesium are usually responsible for the bitterness, sodium for the salty taste, and calcium for kidney stones. :) Where the composition of sea water allows it, evaporation is carried out under natural conditions, obtaining natural sea salt, but the bulk of the sea salt is also refined, removing bitterness and most impurities.

So, mineral composition sea ​​salt is incredibly richer and depends on climatic conditions and composition of sea water. The deep sea salt being marketed proves this fact. Swinging from great depths sea ​​water and then evaporating it in reactors, manufacturers are proud of the presence in it of such elements as copper, selenium, iron, zinc, etc. That is, everything that they are trying to get rid of in refined salt.
I don’t know how useful such a composition rich in microelements is. All of these: bromine, strontium, fluorine, phosphorus, boron, copper, zinc and the rest of the periodic table are present in the atmosphere of the metropolis, we already use them every day. :)

What else do we use along with salt?
The 20th century began when, for the first time, magnesium carbonate was added to it to improve the flowability of salt. And away we go.
The latest additives are additives against caking and freezing of salt in bags - potassium hexocyanoferrate (E535). Although potassium ferrocyanide (K4x3H2O) is a neutral substance, its presence is still limited by standards - no more than 15 g/ton of salt.

At the same time, we decided to take care of the health of the population.
In the 1920s, potassium iodide or iodate was added to table salt to prevent goiter, a disease of the thyroid gland that occurs with iodine deficiency. And they still do this.
Part of sodium chloride in Lately replaced with potassium chloride. It is believed that this salt is more suitable for people with hypertension problems.

Finally, another very well-known additive forms the so-called “curing mixture”. This is sodium nitrite, NaNO2 (E250), which was and is used to preserve color and as an antibacterial component that acts on the causative agent of botulism when salting meat and fish and cooking sausages. Sodium nitrite is a toxic substance, the use of which is also strictly regulated.

I’ve probably already been buzzing all ears about multi-colored seasoning salts. But here are a couple more.

RED SALT
The French Sel de Bayonne, which I recently bought here along with Provençal herbs, turns out to have AOC status, despite its anti-caking additives, and goes perfectly with another local AOC specialty - Piment de Espilett.
That doesn’t stop us from preparing a similar mixture from any suitable salt and any capsicum to taste. The proportions for the mixture are 85% salt and 15% pepper flakes or powder, depending on the coarseness of the salt taken.

GREEN SALT FOR ROASTED MEAT
The Italian seasoning salamoia, which I also recently purchased, is made more of herbs and salt than salt and herbs. It contains rosemary, sage, black pepper, garlic - a very fragrant and soulful thing.
As far as I understand Italian, salamoia simply means “pickle.” Why this herbal salt was called that is a mystery to me.

(c) shakherezada.livejournal.com

We take salt for granted as a necessary seasoning for dishes. Meanwhile, this substance, important in cooking, is a healer, a magical protector and an assistant in the household.

For treatment, salt is often used in dissolved form. The methods have a number of nuances that you definitely need to know about. For example, how to make a 10 percent saline solution, if there are no chemical beakers or beakers at home? How much salt and water should I take? Let's consider simple options preparation of medicinal solutions.

What salt is needed to prepare medicine?

Before preparing a 10% saline solution, you need to carefully study the recipe. What substance does it mention? If it is table salt, then the packages that indicate:

• kitchen salt;
• sodium chloride;
• table salt;
• rock salt.

The word “salt” is used in everyday life, although this term refers to many complex substances formed by metal ions or atoms and acidic residues. Except in medicinal purposes Epsom salt is used - magnesium sulfate. Substances are extracted during the development of deposits in the earth's crust.

If you evaporate, you get sea salt, which contains sodium, magnesium, iodine, chloride, sulfate ions and other components. The properties of such a mixture differ somewhat from the individual substances. Usually, a 1-10% saline solution of sodium chloride is prepared to treat wounds, sore throats, and teeth. The chemical formula of a compound that has amazing properties, - NaCl.

What should be the degree of purity of the components?

How to make a 10 percent saline solution at home so that the medicine does good and not harm the body? Salt should also be as pure as possible, but salt purchased at the Stone store is often contaminated with impurities. There is a purer finely ground product.

Some recipes recommend using snow or rainwater, but this is a bad idea from the point of view of modern ecology. The purity of the liquid that flows in domestic drinking water supply systems also raises many complaints. It, like snow and rain, can be contaminated with chlorine, iron, phenol, petroleum products, and nitrates. Let us clarify that distilled or demineralized water is used as a solvent in medicine. At home, you can use filtered or boiled water to prepare the solution.

If you put plastic molds with water in the freezer, it will freeze first pure water, and impurities will accumulate at the bottom. Without waiting for complete freezing, you need to collect the ice from the surface and melt it. The result will be very clean and healthy water.

How to measure the mass of salt and the volume of water to prepare a solution?

Everything you need should be collected in advance, before making the 10 percent. You will need water, a beaker, a bag of salt, scales, a glass and a spoon (table, dessert or tea) for the work. The photo below will help determine the mass of salt contained in a dessert spoon and a teaspoon.

Then you need to decide on the units of measurement for the liquid. It is believed that the mass of 100 ml of pure fresh water is equal to 100 g (the density of fresh water is 1 g/ml). Liquids can be measured with a beaker; if you don’t have one, then an ordinary glass of those called “faceted” will do. Filled to the top, it contains 200 ml of water (or g). If you pour to the very top, you get 250 ml (250 g).

What does the expression “10 percent solution” mean?

The concentration of substances is usually expressed in several ways. The most commonly used quantity in medicine and everyday life is the weight percentage. It shows how many grams of a substance are contained in 100 g of solution. For example, if a recipe states that a 10% saline solution is used, then every 100 g of such a preparation contains 10 g of the dissolved substance.

Let's say you need to prepare 200 g of a 10% salt solution. Let's carry out simple calculations that don't take much time:

100 g of solution contains 10 g of substance; 200 g of solution contains x g of substance.
x = 200 g x 10 g: 100 g = 20 g (salt).
200 g - 20 g = 180 g (water).
180 g x 1 g/ml = 180 ml (water).

How to prepare a 10% saline solution?

If there are scales and a beaker in the house, then it is better to measure the mass of salt and the volume of water with their help. You can also take a full teaspoon and pour a glass of water up to the mark, but such measurements are prone to inaccuracies.

How to make a 10% saline solution to make 100 g of the drug? You should weigh out 10 g of solid sodium chloride, pour 90 ml of water into a glass and pour salt into the water, stirring with a spoon until dissolved. Mix salt with warm or cold water, and then heat the dishes with the ingredients. For better cleansing, the finished solution is passed through a ball of cotton wool (filtered).

You can prepare 50 g of a 10% solution from 45 ml of water and 5 g of salt. Saline is made from 1 liter of water and 100 g of sodium chloride (4 tablespoons “without top”).

Treatment with 10% saline solution

In medicine, a 0.9% solution of salts is prepared using fresh distilled water, which is called “physiological”. This liquid is isotonic with respect to the internal environment of the human body (has the same concentration). It is used during various medical procedures, in particular as a blood substitute, to eliminate the effects of dehydration and intoxication.

A hypertonic solution contains more salt; when it comes into contact with an isotonic or hypotonic liquid, it attracts water until the concentrations equalize. This osmotic effect is used in folk recipes to cleanse wounds from pus. Salt has antiseptic and antimicrobial properties; its hypertonic solutions are used in alternative medicine:

• for diseases of internal organs - in the form of a salt bandage on the source of pain;
• as lotions, compresses and applications for skin and other infections;
• as salt baths for fatigue and pain in the hands and feet;
• to cleanse purulent wounds.

Treatment with hypertonic 10% saline will take time and may take several days or weeks. Minimal amount procedures - 4-7. For sore throat, use a 3-5% hypertonic solution for gargling in the morning and evening. The nasal cavity is washed. To prepare it, you need to add 237 ml of water. boiled water 1.2 g sodium chloride and 2.5 g baking soda.

Salts - chemical compounds, which have a complex structure, and in water decompose (dissociate) into a metal and an acid residue. In this case, the metal is a cation, and the acid residue is an anion. Salts can be formed as a result of the interaction of bases (alkalis) and acids, during the reaction water is released. Salts are purely inorganic substances, but can also be formed with organic residues.

How to get salts in different ways

Salts can be obtained not only by the interaction of acid and alkali; there are many other ways to form these substances in chemical industry or laboratories. Let's give some examples.

Interaction of simple substances:

• 2K + S - K 2 S
• Na + Cl - NaCl

This method of salts can only be obtained in the laboratory with certain conditions (high temperatures or pressure).

Neutralization involving alkalis and acids:

• H 2 SO 4 + 2NaOH - Na 2 SO 4 + 2H 2 O,

where H 2 SO 4 is sulfuric acid, NaOH is sodium hydroxide, Na 2 SO 4 is sodium sulfate salt;

• NaOH + HCl - NaCl + H 2 O,

where HCl is hydrochloric acid, NaCl is sodium chloride (table salt).

Reaction between two oxides (you need to take an alkaline and an acidic oxide to get a salt):

• K 2 O + SO 3 - K 2 SO 4 (potassium sulfate);
• CaO + Mn 2 O 7 - Ca(MnO 4) 2 (calcium permanganate).

Interaction of salts and acids. In this case, an exchange of ions occurs, resulting in the formation of a new salt:

• BaCI + H 2 SO 4 - BaSO 4 &darr- + 2HCl,

where BaSO 4 is barium sulfate, an insoluble compound (salt);

• 2 NaCl + H 2 SO 4 (conc.) - Na 2 SO 4 + 2HCl,

where Na 2 SO 4 is sodium sulfate (salt);

• CaCO 3 + 2HCl - CaCl 2 + CO 2 ^ + H 2 O,

where CaCl 2 is calcium chloride.

During the reaction, carbon dioxide H 2 CO 3 is formed, which is an unstable compound and instantly breaks down into water and carbon dioxide.

Salt is also produced by the reaction of a salt and a base. Here are examples of formulas:

• CuCl 2 + 2NaOH - 2NaCl + Cu(OH) 2 &darr-,

where CuCl 2 is copper chloride, Cu(OH) 2 is copper hydroxide, which precipitates;

• KHSO 4 + KOH - K 2 SO 4 + H 2 O,

where KHSO 4 is potassium hydrogen sulfate, KOH is potassium hydroxide, K 2 SO 4 is potassium sulfate (salt).

Water-soluble salts react with alkalis. This should be taken into account when performing reactions to form new salts.

Exchange reactions during the interaction of two salts:

• CuSO 4 + BaCl 2 - CuCl 2 + BaSO 4 &darr-,

where CuSO 4 is copper (II) sulfate, BaCl 2 is barium chloride, CuCl 2 is cuprum chloride, BaSO 4 is barium sulfate (a salt that is insoluble and precipitates);

• AgNO 3 + KSI - AgCl&darr- + KNO 3,

where AgNO 3 is silver nitrate, KCI is potassium chloride, AgCl is silver chloride (precipitates), KNO 3 is potassium nitrate.

Reaction of acid with oxides (also actually a neutralization reaction):

• СuO + 2HCl - CuCl2 + H2O,

where CuO is copper oxide,

• H 2 SO 4 + CuO - CuSO 4 + H 2 O

Interaction of a metal with an acid (hydrogen substitution reaction in an acid). Metals that are located to the left of hydrogen in the series of voltages (activities of metals) are capable of entering into such reactions. They displace hydrogen and combine with acidic residues, forming new compounds - salts:

• Zn + H 2 SO 4 - ZnSO 4 + H 2 ^,

where ZnSO 4 is zinc sulfate (salt). During the reaction, hydrogen is released as a gas;

• Fe + H 2 SO 4 (diluted) - FeSO 4 + H 2- ^,

where FeSO 4 is iron (II) sulfate.

The reaction of metal substitution in salt, when the most active metal displaces the more passive one from the salt, forming a new substance (the strength of the metal’s influence is higher, the further to the left it is in the activity series of metals):

• Zn + H 2 SO 4 - ZnSO 4 + H 2 ^

There are many more complex methods for obtaining salts, provided that you have an equipped chemical laboratory.

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The first answer that comes to mind to the question “what is salt” is “the contents of the salt shaker”.…

Growing salt crystals at home is an opportunity not only to quickly observe how similar phenomena occur in nature with other materials, but also to obtain as a result unusual craft.

Moreover, such a process is completely safe and does not require deep knowledge of chemistry or any reagents; every person has all the objects and substances in their home.

How to grow crystals from salt at home: material and equipment

1. The first and most basic component is salt.. For the success of the crystal growing process, it is important that it is as pure as possible. Therefore, you should give preference to sea salt, because... there is too much small debris in the kitchen room. It is also not recommended to purchase salt with dyes or other additives.

2. Water, which should also be as clean as possible from foreign impurities. If it is not possible to use distilled water, then it is worth at least filtering it first.

3. Non-metallic container for crystal growth. Its size can be limited only by the desired dimensions of the crystal. Important requirements - the material of the container should not color the water or oxidize under the influence of salts. The container should be washed thoroughly. Any foreign objects inside, even if they are small specks, can become the basis for the growth of other small crystals, slowing down the growth of the main one.

4. A small crystal of salt from a pack, piece of branch, leaf, wire, thread or any other object for the basis of a future large crystal. A suitable large piece of salt can be easily found in an almost empty salt shaker. Small particles fall out of it when used, but large particles do not fit through the holes and remain inside. It is necessary to choose the largest one and having a shape as close as possible to a parallelepiped.

5. Something non-metallic for stirring the solution - wooden stick, plastic or ceramic spoon, etc.

6. Filter paper or gauze.

7. Paper napkins or toilet paper .

8. Varnish for coating the finished crystal.

9. Patience. It is not enough to know how to grow crystals from salt at home; you also need to be able to wait. A crystal of more or less decent size will form no earlier than in 3-4 weeks.

As you can see, no complex or expensive equipment is required. All these items and substances are easy to find in absolutely any person’s household.

How to grow crystals from salt at home: sequence of steps

The technology for obtaining a crystal from salt is very simple, and the process requires very little human intervention, mostly just time. Capacity with clean water placed in warm water(50-60 degrees, no more needed), and add salt little by little, constantly stirring the solution. When it becomes saturated, i.e. there will be so much salt in it that it will no longer be able to dissolve; it is poured into a clean container so that sediment from the old one does not fall into it. You can even further clean the solution from impurities by passing it through filter paper or gauze folded several times.

It is possible to achieve the required water temperature for heating the solution without a thermometer. To do this, mix just boiled boiling water and water at room temperature in a ratio of approximately 1 to 2.

For the traditional crystal shape, this will be a large grain of salt, which is easy to find in any pack;

For an elongated crystal, a thread is lowered into the solution so that it does not touch the walls and bottom;

If you want to get a crystal of a complex and bizarre design, then hang a small twig or curved wire on a thread.

Knowing how to grow crystals from salt at home, you don’t have to limit your imagination to simple objects. To get not just a crystal, but really original craft, as a base, you can place a wire bent in the shape of a star, snowflake or other similar simple shape into the solution. In principle, you can use absolutely any item that is not subject to oxidation from salts.

Next, the container is covered with a lid, a napkin, a sheet of paper, or basically anything to protect the solution from dust and foreign objects. The container with the growing crystal should be stored in a dark, cool place without drafts. You should not allow strong mechanical impacts on it - too frequent movements, shaking, etc., as well as regular and significant changes in temperature or humidity, i.e. for example, you definitely shouldn’t place a crystal in the bathroom, as well as near the stove in the kitchen or near heating appliances.

Naturally, the larger the crystal grows, the less salt remains in the surrounding water. Therefore, to speed up the process, approximately once a week - ten days it is necessary to add a new salt-saturated solution to the container. And if the crystal has already grown out of an old glass or jar, you can transfer it to a larger one, trying not to drop it or break it, because he is very fragile.

The crystal removed from the solution is dried to remove any remaining water, gently blotting it soft cloth or a regular paper napkin. This must be done very carefully, because the crystal is not particularly durable. For preservation, the crystal is coated with household or manicure colorless varnish. If this is not done, then the life of this beautiful item will be short-lived. In dry air, the remaining water will quickly evaporate, and it will crumble into powder, and with excess humidity, on the contrary, it will absorb excess liquid and will spread into a shapeless pile of individual small crystals or even into a pulp.

Table salt will turn into crystals white.

If you want other shades, you can:

Use a different type of salt (for example, copper sulfate for deep blue);

Cover the finished crystal with a colored coating rather than a transparent one;

Add to the solution at the crystal preparation stage food colorings, for example, those used in baking or for Easter eggs. However, such substances are very bright colors they can't give.

There will be no fundamental difference in the growth rate and shape of the finished crystal when using table or sea salt. However, in the second case, the crystal will be more dense in structure and will be more durable.

If the crystal grows in a slightly different shape than you want, then the excess areas can be carefully scraped off with a knife or nail file, remembering that the crystal is very fragile. It is easy to give the crystal the desired shape if you treat those areas whose growth is undesirable with ordinary Vaseline or other thick, greasy substance. If you need to remove it, this can be done with acetone or alcohol.

So that the crystal splits, as if branching into different sides, add a small amount of glycerin to the solution.

Precautionary measures

Table salt is an absolutely harmless substance for humans, because we eat it every day without any health consequences. Therefore, there is no need to follow any safety precautions when growing a salt crystal.

However, to prevent foreign objects from getting into the solution, you should at least collect your hair, or better yet, cover it with a scarf, and wash your hands with soap or even wear rubber gloves. And if there are scratches or wounds on your hands, you simply need to wear gloves, otherwise the strong saline solution will sting strongly. Nothing fatal or harmful, but not a pleasant feeling. Similarly, it is better to protect your hands if salt with dyes is used, and there is a possibility of an allergy to these dyes.

But when working with copper sulfate and other more aggressive salts, it is imperative to take precautions, trying not to inhale the solution, avoid getting it on the skin, and also be in a well-ventilated area and keep small children or pets away from the growing crystals. . Used for this chemical experience Under no circumstances should containers be used for receiving or storing food, medicines, personal hygiene items, cosmetics, in general, anything that will subsequently come into direct contact with the human body.

How to grow crystals from salt at home: reasons for failure

Why did the piece of salt used as a base dissolve instead of forming a crystal around itself? This means that the salt solution was not saturated enough to begin with. When preparing it, salt must be added little by little until it no longer dissolves and begins to precipitate. Charts of the solubility of these salts in water of a certain temperature, easily found on the Internet, will help you select the proportions of food and other salts for preparing the solution.

If instead of one, several small crystals suddenly grow in the container, then this indicates foreign impurities in the solution. This could be either insufficiently well-filtered water, debris in the salt, or a poorly washed container into which the solution was poured.

What is the reason for the insufficiently uniform color of the colored crystal? Perhaps when adding the dye it was not mixed very thoroughly. And if the crystal is large, and the saline solution was prepared for it several times, then in one of the times significantly less or more dye was added than in the others.

Of course, even knowing how to grow crystals from salt at home and following all the recommendations, you may not get exactly what you wanted. This is normal, because the conditions in which the growing crystal is placed and the substances used for this may differ. However, over time, you will definitely be able to get the hang of it, select the optimal proportions of components and conditions for crystal growth.