“International relations in the 16th-18th centuries.

On the eve of World War II, the French army was considered one of the most powerful in the world. But in a direct clash with Germany in May 1940, the French only had enough resistance for a few weeks.

Useless superiority

By the beginning of World War II, France had the 3rd largest army in the world in terms of the number of tanks and aircraft, second only to the USSR and Germany, as well as the 4th largest navy after Britain, the USA and Japan. The total number of French troops numbered more than 2 million people.
The superiority of the French army in manpower and equipment over the Wehrmacht forces on the Western Front was undeniable. For example, the French Air Force included about 3,300 aircraft, half of which were the latest combat vehicles. The Luftwaffe could only count on 1,186 aircraft.
With the arrival of reinforcements from the British Isles - an expeditionary force of 9 divisions, as well as air units, including 1,500 combat vehicles - the advantage over the German troops became more than obvious. However, in a matter of months, not a trace remained of the former superiority of the allied forces - the well-trained and tactically superior Wehrmacht army ultimately forced France to capitulate.

The line that didn't protect

The French command assumed that german army will act as during the First World War - that is, it will launch an attack on France from the northeast from Belgium. The entire load in this case was supposed to fall on the defensive redoubts of the Maginot Line, which France began building in 1929 and improved until 1940.

The French spent a fabulous sum on the construction of the Maginot Line, which stretches 400 km - about 3 billion francs (or 1 billion dollars). Massive fortifications included multi-level underground forts with living quarters, ventilation units and elevators, electrical and telephone stations, hospitals and narrow gauge railways. railways. Gun casemates were supposed to be protected from aerial bombs concrete wall 4 meters thick.

The personnel of the French troops on the Maginot Line reached 300 thousand people.
According to military historians, the Maginot Line, in principle, coped with its task. There were no breakthroughs by German troops in its most fortified areas. But the German Army Group B, having bypassed the line of fortifications from the north, threw its main forces into its new sections, which were built in swampy areas, and where the construction of underground structures was difficult. There to hold back the onslaught German troops The French couldn't.

Surrender in 10 minutes

On June 17, 1940, the first meeting of the collaborationist government of France, headed by Marshal Henri Petain, took place. It lasted only 10 minutes. During this time, the ministers unanimously voted for the decision to appeal to the German command and ask them to end the war on French territory.

For these purposes, the services of an intermediary were used. The new Minister of Foreign Affairs, P. Baudouin, through the Spanish Ambassador Lequeric, conveyed a note in which the French government asked Spain to appeal to the German leadership with a request to end hostilities in France, and also to find out the terms of the truce. At the same time, a proposal for a truce was sent to Italy through the papal nuncio. On the same day, Pétain addressed the people and the army on the radio, calling on them to “stop the fight.”

Last stronghold

When signing the armistice agreement (act of surrender) between Germany and France, Hitler looked warily at the latter's vast colonies, many of which were ready to continue resistance. This explains some of the relaxations in the treaty, in particular, the preservation of part of the French navy to maintain “order” in its colonies.

England was also vitally interested in the fate of the French colonies, since the threat of their capture by German forces was highly assessed. Churchill hatched plans to create an émigré government of France, which would give actual control over the French overseas possessions to Britain.
General Charles de Gaulle, who created a government in opposition to the Vichy regime, directed all his efforts towards taking possession of the colonies.

However, the North African administration rejected the offer to join the Free French. A completely different mood reigned in the colonies of Equatorial Africa - already in August 1940, Chad, Gabon and Cameroon joined de Gaulle, which created the conditions for the general to form a state apparatus.

Mussolini's Fury

Realizing that France's defeat by Germany was inevitable, Mussolini declared war on her on June 10, 1940. The Italian Army Group "West" of Prince Umberto of Savoy, with a force of over 300 thousand people, supported by 3 thousand guns, began an offensive in the Alps region. However, the opposing army of General Oldry successfully repelled these attacks.

By June 20, the offensive of the Italian divisions became more fierce, but they only managed to advance slightly in the Menton area. Mussolini was furious - his plans to seize a large piece of its territory by the time France surrendered failed. The Italian dictator has already started cooking airborne assault, but did not receive approval for this operation from the German command.
On June 22, an armistice was signed between France and Germany, and two days later France and Italy entered into the same agreement. Thus, with a “victorious embarrassment,” Italy entered the Second World War.

Victims

During the active phase of the war, which lasted from May 10 to June 21, 1940, the French army lost about 300 thousand people killed and wounded. One and a half million were captured. The French tank corps and air force were partially destroyed, the other part went to the German armed forces. At the same time, Britain liquidates the French fleet to avoid it falling into the hands of the Wehrmacht.

Despite the fact that the capture of France took place in short time, its armed forces gave a worthy rebuff to German and Italian troops. During the month and a half of the war, the Wehrmacht lost more than 45 thousand people killed and missing, and about 11 thousand were wounded.
The French victims of German aggression could not have been in vain if the French government had accepted a number of concessions put forward by Britain in exchange for the entry of the royal armed forces into the war. But France chose to capitulate.

Paris – a place of convergence

According to the armistice agreement, Germany occupied only the western coast of France and the northern regions of the country, where Paris was located. The capital was a kind of place for “French-German” rapprochement. German soldiers and Parisians lived peacefully here: they went to the movies together, visited museums, or just sat in a cafe. After the occupation, theaters also revived - their box office revenue tripled compared to the pre-war years.

Paris very quickly became the cultural center of occupied Europe. France lived as before, as if there had been no months of desperate resistance and unfulfilled hopes. German propaganda managed to convince many French that capitulation was not a shame for the country, but the road to a “bright future” for a renewed Europe.

In this summary, the topic of the lesson is “ International relationships in the 16th-18th centuries in Europe + table"(7th grade) in the subject " The World History" See also Lesson notes on the subject “History of Russia”.

Causes of international conflicts.

First reason . Two points of view on what Europe should be like: 1) The Austrian Habsburgs who ruled the Holy Roman Empire believed that there should be a single empire, headed by a Catholic emperor supported by the Pope (from the Habsburg dynasty, of course), 2) England and France believed that independent nation states should exist in Europe.

The second reason . In the 16th century Europe is split along religious lines into Catholics and Protestants. Catholic countries sought to stop “heresy”; Protestants considered their creed “true”. Religious wars have become on a European scale.

Third reason. Economic contradictions - the struggle for colonies, for markets, for dominance on sea trade routes.

Fourth reason . Lack of clear and consistent policies in some countries. The positions of the French kings changed depending on their interests domestic policy, their religion and personal sympathies, so they acted either on the side of England or on the side of Spain.

Rivalry between France and Spain for influence over wealthy Italy led to Italian wars(1494-1559). The French, Spanish, Italians and Germans took part in these wars. The result of the war was the virtual subjugation of Italy to the Spanish king.

THIRTY YEARS WAR. Causes

First pan-European war A. This is what historians call the Thirty Years' War ( 1618-1648 ), since it was a war not of two or three powers, but of almost all European countries united in two powerful coalitions.

The war began as religious conflict between German Catholics and Protestants. Austria, German Catholic princes and Spain fought on the side of the Catholics and the Habsburgs. They were opposed by the German Protestant princes, Protestant Denmark and Sweden, as well as Catholic France, which sought to prevent the strengthening of the Habsburg positions in the German principalities bordering on it. Russia also supported the anti-Habsburg camp from the beginning of the conflict.

Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand II of Habsburg(1619-1637) set himself the task of eradicating Protestantism and establishing imperial control over the entire European territory.

During the war, the balance of power changed: many German princes went over to one side or the other. Military operations mainly took place on German territory.

Czech period of the 30 Years' War.

The reason for the war was the events in the Czech Republic, which was part of Holy Roman Empire. In 1618, Czech nobles, outraged by religious persecution, threw the royal governors out of the windows of the Czech Chancellery in Prague. This meant a break in relations with Austria. The Czechs, led by Count Thurn, moved to Vienna and in June 1619 took possession of its outskirts.

Ferdinand II, who became in 1619 year emperor, sent a large army against the rebels, which in 1620 completely defeated the Czech army at White Mountain , after which a cruel reprisal was committed against the rebels. The Czech Republic was turned into an Austrian province Bohemia.

Danish period of the 30 Years' War.

The emperor's victory caused alarm Denmark, which had its territorial possessions in Northern Germany. Denmark enters into a coalition with England and Holland and 1625 g. begins military operations.

But the talented commander Albrecht von comes to the aid of Catholics Wallenstein(1583-1634), who, in the absence of money in the treasury, suggested that Ferdinand II create an army of 50 thousand people without any special expenses for the treasury. For this, the emperor appointed him imperial commander-in-chief. Wallenstein's military system was that the army should support itself by robbing the population of the area where it was located. The emperor legalized the robbery of soldiers in the conquered territories.

In 1626, imperial troops defeated the Danes and their German Protestant allies and occupied the territory of the North German states. Dominance was restored in these lands catholic church. Having lost half his army, the Danish king fled and was then forced to make peace ( 1629 ) and pledged not to interfere in German affairs in the future.

Swedish period of the 30 Years' War.

Swedish king Gustav II Adolf- a passionate Lutheran, wanted to weaken the position of Catholicism and seize the entire Baltic Sea into his own hands, collect trade duties in his favor, and turn the kingdom into a strong Baltic empire.

In 1630, Gustav II Adolf brought to Germany a small but well-organized, regular and professional army, consisting of three branches of troops commanded by career officers. The king's main fighting force was the swift attacks of his cavalry; in addition, he skillfully used light and mobile field artillery.

France and Russia provided assistance to the Swedish king. France, who wanted to weaken the Habsburgs, helped with money. Russia supplied Sweden with cheap bread, hoping with its support to return Smolensk, captured by Poland.

The Swedish king occupied the lands of southern Germany. In November 1632, Swedish troops defeated the emperor's troops at the Battle of Lützen, but King Gustav II Adolf died in a cavalry battle. After the death of their commander, the Swedish troops remained in Germany and turned into the same robbers as the Wallenstein gangs.

End of the 30 Years' War

IN 1634 year, the son of Ferdinand II, the future Emperor Ferdinand III, inflicted decisive defeat at Nördlingen. France took advantage of this situation and entered into an alliance with Holland and Sweden. In 1635, Louis XIII declared war on Spain, and Cardinal Richelieu sent French troops to Germany.

In 1637, the new emperor of the Holy Roman Empire - Ferdinand III(1608-1657). In 1647, he was almost captured by Swedish partisans. By 1648, French troops had won a number of significant victories, which forced the new emperor to make peace. Ferdinand managed to clear his possessions of soldiers and bandits only in 1654.

Peace of Westphalia.

The war ended in 1648 year with the Peace of Westphalia, which laid the foundations for new relations between states in Europe. Under the terms of the peace treaty, France received Alsace. Sweden was paid an indemnity, but most importantly, it received vast lands in the Baltic, thus consolidating its control over the mouths of the most important navigable rivers in Germany - the Oder, Elbe and Weser. The most important trade routes of Germany were in the hands of the Swedes. The Peace of Westphalia recognized the independence of Holland (United Provinces) from Spain.

The Peace of Westphalia ended the feud between Catholics and Protestants. Were Catholic and Protestant churches are recognized as equal . The Holy Roman Empire of the German nation actually collapsed, but the issue of creating national states on its territory was not resolved. The increased independence of the princes hindered the national unification of Germany.

The balance of power in Europe, based on the Peace of Westphalia, rested on the strengthening of France Louis XIV and the weakening of the Habsburgs.

War of the Spanish Succession.

The King of Spain died in 1700 Charles II of Habsburg. According to his will, the crown of Spain passed to the grandson of the French king Louis XIV, the Duke Philip of Anjou. However, not a single European country was willing to come to terms with this, fearing an even greater strengthening of France. Great Britain, Holland and other countries started a war that led France to ruin.

Under the terms of the peace treaty of 1714, Philip of Anjou renounced his rights to the French crown. The war weakened both the Bourbons and the Habsburgs, and a new balance of power emerged in Europe. England has strengthened significantly. The opportunities for English colonization of North America also expanded.

Other wars of the 18th century.

North War(1700-1721). Russia, in alliance with Denmark, fought against Sweden. Russia won this war.

War of the Austrian Succession(1740-1748). In 1701, the Holy Roman Emperor allowed the emergence of a new state - the Kingdom of Prussia. In 1740, Emperor Charles VI of Habsburg died, bequeathing all his possessions to his daughter, Maria Theresa. European monarchs did not agree with this decision. The King of Prussia, Frederick II, laid claim to the Austrian inheritance. France, Spain and some of the German princes entered the war against the Habsburg monarchy. Maria Theresa was supported by Great Britain, Holland and Russia.

But under the terms of the peace treaty, Maria Theresa managed to maintain the unity of her territories. Since this war, intense rivalry for primacy among the German states began between the dynasty of Prussian and Austrian kings.

Seven Years' War(1756-1763). In it, Prussia and England fought against Austria, France, Saxony, Russia and Sweden. This war revealed the military power of Russia, whose army inflicted a series of defeats on the considered invincible Prussian army and reached Berlin.

As a result of the Seven Years' War, the European borders did not change, and England received the greatest benefits, to which large French possessions in India and North America(Canada and Louisiana). England, pushing aside France, became the leading colonial and trading power in the world.

Russo-Turkish War(1768-1774). In the XVI-XVII centuries. was a dangerous rival to the European powers Ottoman Empire, which as a result of successful military operations in the 16th century. has become a huge state in terms of territory and population.

As a result of French and Polish intrigues Ottoman Sultan Mustafa III declared war on Russia in 1768, using the actions of the Russian army in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth as a pretext.

In 1774, the Ottoman Empire was forced to sign with Russia Kuchuk-Kainardzhi Treaty. As a result of the war, which ended in victory Russian Empire, it included lands in Crimea (the rest of Crimea was annexed to Russia 9 years later - in 1783), as well as Azov and Kabarda. Crimean Khanate formally gained independence under Russian protectorate. Russia received the right to trade and have a navy in the Black Sea.

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The 20th century in world history was marked by important discoveries in the field of technology and art, but at the same time it was the time of two World Wars, which claimed the lives of several tens of millions of people in most countries of the world. States such as the USA, USSR, Great Britain and France played a decisive role in the Victory. During World War II they won a victory over world fascism. France was forced to capitulate, but then revived and continued the fight against Germany and its allies.

France in the pre-war years

In the last pre-war years, France experienced serious economic difficulties. At that time, the Popular Front was at the helm of the state. However, after Blum's resignation, the new government was headed by Shotan. His policies were beginning to deviate from the Popular Front program. Taxes were raised, the 40-hour workweek was abolished, and industrialists had the opportunity to increase the duration of the latter. A strike movement immediately swept across the country, however, the government sent police detachments to pacify the dissatisfied. France before World War II pursued an antisocial policy and every day had less and less support among the people.

By this time, the military-political bloc "Axis Berlin - Rome" had been formed. In 1938, Germany invaded Austria. Two days later her Anschluss occurred. This event dramatically changed the state of affairs in Europe. A threat loomed over the Old World, and this primarily concerned Great Britain and France. The population of France demanded that the government take decisive action against Germany, especially since the USSR also expressed such ideas, proposing to join forces and nip the growing fascism in the bud. However, the government still continued to follow the so-called. "appeasement", believing that if Germany was given everything it asked for, war could be avoided.

The authority of the Popular Front was melting before our eyes. Unable to cope with economic problems, Shotan resigned. After which Blum’s second government was installed, which lasted less than a month until his next resignation.

Daladier government

France during World War II could have appeared in a different, more attractive light, if not for some actions of the new Chairman of the Council of Ministers, Edouard Daladier.

The new government was formed exclusively from democratic and right-wing forces, without communists and socialists, however, Daladier needed the support of the latter two in the elections. Therefore, he designated his activities as a sequence of actions of the Popular Front, as a result he received the support of both communists and socialists. However, immediately after coming to power, everything changed dramatically.

The first steps were aimed at “improving the economy.” Taxes were raised and another devaluation was carried out, which ultimately yielded negative results. But this is not the most important thing in Daladier’s activities of that period. Foreign policy Europe was at the limit at that time - one spark, and the war would have started. France in World War II did not want to choose the side of the defeatists. There were several opinions within the country: some wanted a close union with Great Britain and the United States; others did not rule out the possibility of an alliance with the USSR; still others spoke out sharply against the Popular Front, proclaiming the slogan “Better Hitler than the Popular Front.” Separate from those listed were pro-German circles of the bourgeoisie, who believed that even if they succeeded in defeating Germany, the revolution that would come with the USSR would Western Europe, will not spare anyone. They proposed to pacify Germany in every possible way, giving it freedom of action in the eastern direction.

A black spot in the history of French diplomacy

After the easy accession of Austria, Germany increases its appetite. Now she has set her sights on the Sudetenland of Czechoslovakia. Hitler made it so that the region populated mainly by Germans began to fight for autonomy and actual separation from Czechoslovakia. When the government of the country categorically rebuffed the fascist antics, Hitler began to act as the savior of the “disadvantaged” Germans. He threatened the Benes government that he could send in his troops and take the region by force. In turn, France and Great Britain verbally supported Czechoslovakia, while the USSR offered real military assistance if Benes appealed to the League of Nations and officially appealed to the USSR for help. Benes could not take a single step without the instructions of the French and British, who did not want to quarrel with Hitler. The international diplomatic events that followed could have greatly reduced France's losses in World War II, which was already inevitable, but history and politicians decided differently, strengthening the main fascist many times over with the military factories of Czechoslovakia.

On September 28, a conference of France, England, Italy and Germany took place in Munich. Here the fate of Czechoslovakia was decided, and neither Czechoslovakia nor Soviet Union who expressed a desire to help were not invited. As a result, the next day, Mussolini, Hitler, Chamberlain and Daladier signed the protocols of the Munich Agreements, according to which the Sudetenland was henceforth the territory of Germany, and areas with a predominance of Hungarians and Poles were also to be separated from Czechoslovakia and become lands of the titular countries.

Daladier and Chamberlain guaranteed the inviolability of the new borders and peace in Europe for “a whole generation” of returning national heroes.

In principle, this was, so to speak, the first capitulation of France in World War II to the main aggressor in the entire history of mankind.

The beginning of World War II and the entry of France into it

According to the strategy of attack on Poland, early in the morning of the year Germany crossed the border. The Second has begun World War! with the support of its aviation and having numerical superiority, it immediately took the initiative into its own hands and quickly captured Polish territory.

France in World War II, as well as England, declared war on Germany only after two days of active hostilities - September 3, still dreaming of calming or “pacifying” Hitler. In principle, historians have reason to believe that if there had not been a treaty according to which the main patron of Poland after the First World War was France, which was obliged in the event of open aggression against the Poles to send in its troops and provide military support, most likely there would have been no declaration of war did not follow either two days later or later.

Strange War, or How France Fought Without Fighting

France's participation in World War II can be divided into several stages. The first is called "Strange War". It lasted about 9 months - from September 1939 to May 1940. It was named so because during the war, France and England did not carry out any military operations against Germany. That is, war was declared, but no one fought. The agreement, according to which France was obliged to organize an attack on Germany within 15 days, was not fulfilled. The German military machine calmly “dealt” with Poland, without looking back at its western borders, where only 23 divisions were concentrated against 110 French and English ones, which could dramatically change the course of events at the beginning of the war and put Germany in a difficult position, if not lead to it at all. defeat. Meanwhile, in the east, beyond Poland, Germany had no rival, it had an ally - the USSR. Stalin, without waiting for an alliance with England and France, concluded it with Germany, securing his lands for some time from the advance of the Nazis, which is quite logical. But England and France behaved rather strangely in the Second World War and specifically at its beginning.

At that time, the Soviet Union occupied the eastern part of Poland and the Baltic states and presented an ultimatum to Finland on the exchange of territories of the Karelian Peninsula. The Finns opposed this, after which the USSR started a war. France and England reacted sharply to this, preparing for war with him.

A completely strange situation has arisen: in the center of Europe, at the very border of France, there is a world aggressor threatening the whole of Europe and, first of all, France itself, and she declares war on the USSR, which simply wants to secure its borders, and offers an exchange of territories, and not treacherous takeover. This state of affairs continued until the BENELUX countries and France suffered from Germany. The period of World War II, marked by oddities, ended here, and the real war began.

At this time within the country...

Immediately after the start of the war, a state of siege was introduced in France. All strikes and demonstrations were banned, and the media were subject to strict wartime censorship. Regarding labor relations, wage was frozen at pre-war levels, strikes were banned, vacations were not provided, and the law on a 40-hour work week was repealed.

During the Second World War, France pursued a fairly tough policy within the country, especially in relation to the PCF (French Communist Party). Communists were practically outlawed. Their mass arrests began. The deputies were stripped of their immunity and put on trial. But the apogee of the “fight against aggressors” was the document of November 18, 1939 - “Decree on Suspicious People.” According to this document, the government could imprison almost any person in a concentration camp, considering him suspicious and dangerous to the state and society. Less than two months later, more than 15,000 communists ended up in concentration camps. And in April next year Another decree was adopted, which equated communist activities with treason, and citizens found guilty of this were punished by death.

German invasion of France

After the defeat of Poland and Scandinavia, Germany began transferring its main forces to Western Front. By May 1940, there was no longer the advantage that countries such as England and France had. World War II was destined to move to the lands of the “peacekeepers” who wanted to appease Hitler by giving him everything he asked for.

On May 10, 1940, Germany launched its invasion of the West. In less than a month, the Wehrmacht managed to break Belgium, Holland, defeat the British Expeditionary Force, as well as the most combat-ready French forces. All of Northern France and Flanders were occupied. The morale of the French soldiers was low, while the Germans believed even more in their invincibility. The matter remained small. IN ruling circles, just like in the army, fermentation began. On June 14, Paris fell to the Nazis, and the government fled to the city of Bordeaux.

Mussolini also did not want to miss the division of spoils. And on June 10, believing that France no longer posed a threat, he invaded the territory of the state. However, the Italian troops, almost twice as numerous, were unsuccessful in the fight against the French. France managed to show what it was capable of in World War II. And even on June 21, on the eve of the signing of the surrender, 32 Italian divisions were stopped by the French. It was a complete failure for the Italians.

Surrender of France in World War II

After England, fearing that the French fleet would fall into the hands of the Germans, scuttled most of it, France broke off all diplomatic relations with the United Kingdom. On June 17, 1940, her government rejected English sentence about an unbreakable alliance and the need to continue the fight to the last.

On June 22, in the Compiegne Forest, in the carriage of Marshal Foch, an armistice was signed between France and Germany. It promised dire consequences for France, primarily economic. Two-thirds of the country became German territory, while the southern part was declared independent, but obliged to pay 400 million francs a day! Most of the raw materials and finished products went to support the German economy, and primarily the army. More than 1 million French citizens were sent as labor to Germany. The country's economy and economy suffered huge losses, which would later have an impact on the industrial and agricultural development of France after World War II.

Vichy mode

After the capture of Northern France in the resort town of Vichy, it was decided to transfer the authoritarian supreme power in southern “independent” France into the hands of Philippe Pétain. This marked the end of the Third Republic and the creation of the Vichy government (from location). France in World War II did not show itself to be the best the best side, especially during the years of the Vichy regime.

At first, the regime found support among the population. However, this was a fascist government. Communist ideas were banned, Jews, as in all territories occupied by the Nazis, were herded into death camps. For one killed German soldier death overtook 50-100 ordinary citizens. The Vichy government itself did not have a regular army. There were only a few armed forces necessary to maintain order and obedience, while the soldiers did not have any serious military weapons.

The regime lasted for quite a long time - from July 1940 to the end of April 1945.

Liberation of France

On June 6, 1944, one of the largest military-strategic operations began - the opening of the Second Front, which began with the landing of the Anglo-American allied forces in Normandy. Fierce battles began on French territory for its liberation; together with the allies, the French themselves carried out actions to liberate the country as part of the Resistance movement.

France disgraced itself in World War II in two ways: firstly, by being defeated, and secondly, by collaborating with the Nazis for almost 4 years. Although General de Gaulle tried his best to create the myth that the entire French people as a single whole fought for the independence of the country, not helping Germany in anything, but only weakening it with various attacks and sabotage. “Paris has been liberated by French hands,” de Gaulle said confidently and solemnly.

The surrender of the occupying forces took place in Paris on August 25, 1944. The Vichy government then existed in exile until the end of April 1945.

After this, something unimaginable began to happen in the country. Those who were declared bandits under the Nazis, that is, partisans, and those who lived happily ever after under the Nazis came face to face. Public lynchings of Hitler's and Pétain's henchmen often took place. The Anglo-American allies, who saw this with their own eyes, did not understand what was happening and called on the French partisans to come to their senses, but they were simply furious, believing that their time had come. A large number of French women, declared fascist whores, were publicly disgraced. They were pulled out of their houses, dragged to the square, where they were shaved and walked along the central streets so that everyone could see, often while all their clothes were torn off. The first years of France after the Second World War, in short, experienced remnants of that recent, but such a sad past, when social tension and at the same time the revival of the national spirit intertwined, creating an uncertain situation.

End of the war. Results for France

The role of France in World War II was not decisive for its entire course, but there was still some contribution, and at the same time there were also negative consequences for it.

The French economy was practically destroyed. Industry, for example, provided only 38% of production from the pre-war level. About 100 thousand French did not return from the battlefields, about two million were held captive until the end of the war. Military equipment Most of it was destroyed and the fleet was sunk.

French policy after World War II is associated with the name of the military and political figure Charles de Gaulle. The first post-war years were aimed at restoring the economy and social well-being of French citizens. France's losses in World War II could have been much lower, or perhaps they would not have happened at all, if on the eve of the war the governments of England and France had not tried to “pacify” Hitler, but had immediately dealt with the still weak German forces with one harsh blow. a fascist monster that almost swallowed the whole world.

The development of the capitalist structure in the depths of feudal society influenced the nature of international relations. Those countries came to the fore where centralized monarchies arose and not dynastic, but national interests prevailed.

In 1700 it began War of the Spanish Succession- Spanish possessions in Europe and the New World. The reason for the war was the Spanish throne. The Spanish king Charles II left a will in favor of the grandson of the French king Louis XIV, since he had no heirs. At the same time, the Austrian monarch Leopold I nominated his contender. In the war that broke out between France and Austria, Spain took a weak part. A coalition consisting of England, Holland and others formed against France European countries. According to the Peace of Utrecht in 1713, the Spanish possessions were divided; its Dutch and Italian territories were ceded to Austria, and in its colonies England received privileges that were economically equivalent to their transfer. The Treaty of Utrecht marked the beginning of a new aggravation of Anglo-French contradictions.

At the same time, in the Baltic region a North War(1700 - 1721), which was protracted. A coalition formed against Sweden that united Russia, Denmark, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and Brandenburg (Prussia). At first, Sweden was successful and launched a campaign against Russia. Through Grodno and Mogilev, her army headed to Ukraine to unite with the army of Hetman Mazepa, who had betrayed Russia, and undertake a joint campaign against Moscow. However, the Russian army near Poltava in 1709 defeated the Swedes. In 1714, the Russian fleet won a victory at Cape Gangut. But the intervention of English and Dutch diplomacy delayed the legal formalization of this victory. In 1721, according to the Treaty of Nystadt, the Izhora land, Estland, Livonia, and part of Karelia passed to Russia. Russia has reached the shores of the Baltic.
In 1740 it broke out war for the "Austrian inheritance"food" between Prussia and Austria. The Prussian king Frederick II sought to take the crown of Holy Roman Emperor from the Habsburgs. Noina lasted until 1748. Although Austria retained the emperor's title, Prussia took away from it a rich province - Silesia.
As a result of these three wars, England, France, Russia, Austria, and Prussia became the great powers. It was they who began to determine international relations until late XVIII V.

Seven Years' War(1756 - 1763). The clash of interests of Prussia and Austria and the intensification of the Anglo-French struggle for colonies led to Seven Years' War, which unfolded not only in Europe, but also in North America and the Asian colonies. Prussia managed to conclude an alliance with England, which considered it as a striking force in the fight against France on the European continent. Russia, fearing Prussian expansion on the Baltic coast, supported Austria. The Prussian army was able to defeat Austrian and French troops at Rosbach in 1757, but was defeated by the Russian army at the Battle of Kunersdorf in 1759. In 1760, Russian troops occupied Berlin. The successes of the Russian army slowed down Prussian expansion in Central Europe and significantly increased the authority of Russia. Death of Tsarina Elizabeth Petrovna and accession to the throne Peter III- Duke of Golyshteinsky eased the situation for Prussia. Russia stopped the war with Prussia and entered into an alliance with it against Denmark, which was contrary to the interests of Russia. Catherine II continued the policy of rapprochement with Prussia. Prussia made peace with Austria, but did not return Silesia to it. Russia and France became arbiters in disputes between Prussia and Austria.

In the colonial theater of war, England defeated France and Spain. The Treaty of Versailles in 1763 ended the war in the colonies. The French were driven out of Canada and India. Spain ceded the Florida peninsula and the island of Minorca to England. As a result of the war, England strengthened its colonial power.

(1804-1814, 1815) against the anti-French coalitions of European states and individual countries of the world with the goal of establishing its military-political and economic dominion in Europe, joining new territories to France and li-shit Ve-li-ko-bri-ta-niyu sta-tu-sa mi-ro-vo-go li-de-ra.

At the initial stage Napoleonic Wars the possibility of raising the national-general movement in European countries that are under oppression volume of the Holy Roman Empire, the overthrow of mo-nar-hi-regimes, the formation of self-sustaining national state-states gifts One day, Na-po-le-he I himself seized and subjugated a whole number of countries, the people of which found themselves under the yoke of foreign wars. The Napoleonic wars became a seizure-of-no-thing, turned into a source of access for na-le-o-new France .

By the time Na-po-le-o-na Bo-na-par-ta came to power, France was at war with the 2nd an-ti-French-tsuz-skaya koa-li-tsi-ey (created in 1798-1799) in the company of Ve-li-ko-bri-ta-nii, Ko-ro- the lion-st-va of both Si-ci-lies, the Holy Roman, Russian and Ottoman empires. As a result of unsuccessful military actions, France found itself in a difficult situation by the fall of 1799. The Egyptian ex-pe-di-tion of Na-po-le-o-na Bo-na-par-ta continued, from-re-zan-naya from the metro-po-po- or the ex-peditionary army was in a critical position. The geo-ge-mo-nia of France in Italy was ut-ra-che-na in the re-zul-ta-te of the Italian-Yan-ho-ho-da of 1799. The Austrian army on the upper Rey was not going to invade France. The French ports were blocked by the British fleet.

As a result of the state re-re-vo-ro-ta on November 9, 1799 (see the Seventh-teenth-bru-me-ra) Na-po-le-on Bo-na- Part became the first con-su-lom of the 1st French re-pub-li-ki and, in fact, all the full power was concentrated in his their hands. In an effort to get France out of the way Na-po-le-he decided to, first of all, remove Ve-li-ko -bri-ta-niu of its main alliance in Europe - the Holy Roman (since 1804 Austrian) Empire. For this, secretly forming an army at the south-eastern borders, Na-po-le-on Bo-na-part moved to Italy in May 1800 Liyu and June 14 in the battle of Ma-ren-go Bo-na-part defeated the imperial troops, which pre-d-def-de-li-lo is - progress of the entire campaign. In December 1800, the French army brought a new order to the imperial troops in Germany near Ho-gen-lin-den, in -zul-ta-te who-ro-go was concluded in the Peace of Lu-ne-ville of 1801. In October 1801, Na-po-le-on Bo-na-part concluded peace treaties with the Ottoman and Russian empires. Ve-li-ko-bri-ta-niya, having lost your co-alliances, would you-well-dena-conclude with France Am The En-sky peace treaty of 1802, which completed the collapse of the 2nd Anti-French Coalition. France and its union-ki ver-well-captured Ve-li-ko-bri-ta-ni-ey ko-lo-nii (except for the islands of Ceylon and Tri-ni-dad), having promised, in turn, to establish Rome, Naples and the island of Elba. There was a short, long, peaceful breath. One day the thief in Am-e-ne did not establish a pro-ti-vo-re-chiy between the go-su-dar-st-va-mi, and 22.5 .1803 The war of France was announced.

Na-po-le-on Bo-na-part on May 18, 1804 was hailed by him-per-ra-to-rum French-call Na-po-le-o-no I. He began to build up forces in the north of France (in Bou-lon la-guerre) for the organization of forces -ro-va-niya of the English Channel and the landing of the ex-peditionary army in Vel-li-ko-bri-ta-nia. Obsessed with this, the English have not unraveled active diplomatic activities to create new howl of the coalition against Na-po-le-o-na I. The Russian Empire is behind the key with Ve-li-ko-bri-ta-ni-ey Peter -Burg So-yuz-ny do-go-vor of 1805, po-lo-lived on-cha-lo of the 3rd An-ti-French Co-a-li-tion (Ve-li -ko-bri-ta-nia, Russian, Holy Roman and Ottoman empires, although Sweden, Ko-ro-levst-in both; -their Si-tsi-liy and Da-niya formal-but did not join the coalition, but were in force in 1804 before- ditch with the Russian im-per-ri-ey actually became her students). In the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805, the combined French-Spanish fleet suffered a crushing defeat from the British es -cadres under the command of Admiral G. Nel-so-na. This thwarted the French plans to invade Vel-li-ko-bri-ta-niy. France lost its military fleet and stopped fighting for supremacy at sea.

Coalition forces are significant but superior to the strength of the new army. According to this, Na-po-le-on I decided in the beginning of the Russian-Av-st-ro-French war of 1805 com-pen- si-ro-to overcome the forces of the coalition with the rapid actions of the French troops with the goal of defeating the enemy in an hour -cham. In October, Na-po-le-on I lived around and defeated the Austrian army in the Battle of Ulm in 1805. The remaining Russian troops found themselves face-to-face with the superior French army. To the commander of the Russian troops, Infantry General M.I. Ku-tu-zo-vu managed to escape the encirclement, in the Battle of Krems, to defeat the French corps of Mar-sha-la E. Mor-tier and unite with the os-stat-ka-mi of the Austrian army. But in the Au-ster-lits-com battle of 1805, the Russian-Austrian troops suffered.