Napoleonic France and Europe. Napoleon Bonaparte - conqueror of all Europe

SECTION II. LOUIS-NAPOLEON BONAPARTE ON THE WAY TO POWER In February 1848, the victory of the rebels of Paris meant a return to the ideas of the Great French Revolution and the restoration of the Republic. This revolution led to the democratization of all political life in the country, which is so good

The historical legacy of the Napoleonic era retained its significance for many decades, and its memory still lives on. The era of the French Revolution and the reign of Napoleon also coincided with a revolution in the cultural history of mankind, which gave rise to the most important trends in philosophical and social thought, literature and art.

Third anti-French coalition (1805)

At the beginning of 1805, a third anti-French coalition emerged, which included Great Britain, Russia, Austria and other European states. In response, Napoleon proclaimed himself king of Italy, initiating a system of dependent kingdoms and other monarchical possessions that replaced the former “daughter republics.”

In August 1805, Austrian troops, without waiting for the Russian army to approach, launched an offensive in southern Germany, but were defeated. The further course of the war was marked by two greatest battles, which completely changed the balance of power in the international arena.

On October 21, 1805, the British squadron defeated the combined fleet of France and Spain in the famous Battle of the Cape Trafalgar in the Mediterranean Sea. Having suffered a catastrophic defeat at sea, Napoleon defeated his opponents on land. The French occupied Vienna, and on December 2, 1805, Austrian and Russian troops were defeated near the Moravian town Austerlitz in a battle known as the “Battle of the Three Emperors.” Russian troops returned to their homeland, and Austria signed a peace treaty, under the terms of which it recognized all the seizures and transformations carried out by Napoleon in Europe. Soon the emperor's brothers occupied the Neapolitan and Dutch thrones.

In the summer of 1806, Napoleon created Confederation of the Rhine, which included 16 German states. All of them left the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation, so its existence was meaningless. On August 6, 1806, Franz II renounced the title that had lost its meaning, and the thousand-year-old empire ended its history. Napoleon's radical transformation of Germany posed a mortal threat to Prussia, which took Austria's place in the anti-French coalition. But soon after the start of a new war, on October 14, 1806, the Prussian troops were completely defeated.

Beginning of the continental blockade

After Trafalgar, the British fleet no longer had rivals at sea, which allowed the British to establish a virtual blockade of Europe, regardless of the interests of other peoples and the norms of international law. In response, Napoleon decided to organize a blockade of the British Isles with the aim of “destroying Great Britain in its trade.” The Berlin Decree, signed by the Emperor in November 1806, marked the beginning of the so-called "continental system", in which, one after another, states dependent on Napoleon or entered into an alliance with him were involved.

In April 1807, Russia and Prussia entered into an agreement to continue the war with Napoleon, calling on other states to support them. However, this call was not heeded. In June 1807, Russian troops were defeated in East Prussia. The results of this war forced both sides to completely reconsider the principles of their foreign policy.

S. M. Solovyov:“Napoleon did not want a war with England: apart from losses, certain naval defeats, this war could not promise him anything.”

World of Tilsit

Napoleon had long sought an agreement with Russia, believing that peace with the Austrian emperor was “nothing against an alliance with the tsar.” Alexander I, for his part, became increasingly convinced that Russia’s main enemy was not France, but Great Britain, which built its prosperity on suppressing the economic development of other countries. In the summer of 1807, during a meeting between the two emperors in the city of Tilsit, not only a peace treaty was signed, but also an agreement on an alliance. The fate of Prussia, which was losing almost half of its territory, was also decided in Tilsit. As a French historian put it, “both wings of the Prussian eagle were chopped off.” The peace agreements provided for the creation of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw in those territories that Prussia captured as a result of the partitions of Poland at the end of the 18th century.

On the site of the Rhineland possessions of Prussia, the Kingdom of Westphalia was created, whose king was Napoleon's brother. According to the Tilsit agreements, Russia and Prussia joined the continental blockade of England.

Continental blockade in 1807-1809

In an effort to undermine the foreign trade of continental Europe, the British tightened measures against neutral shipping, and in September 1807 they again attacked the capital of Denmark. With this attack they set “an example of an unheard-of violation of international law,” and their “modus operandi was such a terrifying combination of duplicity, shamelessness and violence that Europe was shocked.” In response, Denmark entered into an alliance with France and joined the continental blockade. Great Britain declared war on her, and Russia, outraged by the massacre of Denmark, declared war on Great Britain. In 1808, Russia also started a war against Sweden, which supported the British. The Russian-Swedish war ended in 1809 with the annexation of Finland to Russia, and Sweden entered the continental system. The entire Baltic was now closed to British trade. Material from the site

Beginning of the Peninsular Wars (1807-1808)

For his part, Napoleon attempted to close another gap in the continental system, striking in 1807 a blow to Portugal, which remained the largest trading partner of the British in Europe. Unable to resist the French army, the royal court of Portugal moved its residence overseas, to the capital of Brazil, Rio de Janeiro. Brazil, the largest European colony in the Western Hemisphere, was open to British trade. Thus, while strengthening the continental system in Europe, Napoleon at the same time contributed to the fact that vast American markets began to open up for the English. British troops landed in Portugal itself and, with the support of the local population, began a debilitating “Peninsula War” for France.

The logic of the new war required strengthening French control over Spain, so in May 1808 Napoleon obtained the Spanish Bourbons to abdicate power in favor of his brother. The consequences of this step were even more dramatic. A guerrilla war (guerrilla war) began in Spain - the first people's war against Napoleonic rule, and numerous Spanish colonies in America rose up to fight for

Na-po-leo-new wars are usually called the wars waged by France against European countries during the reign of Na-po-leo-na Bo. na-par-ta, that is, in 1799-1815. European countries created anti-Napoleonic coalitions, but their forces were not sufficient to break the power of Napoleonic army. Napoleon won victory after victory. But the invasion of Russia in 1812 changed the situation. Napoleon was expelled from Russia, and the Russian army began a foreign campaign against him, which ended with the Russian invasion of Paris and Napoleon losing the title of emperor.

Rice. 2. British Admiral Horatio Nelson ()

Rice. 3. Battle of Ulm ()

On December 2, 1805, Napoleon won a brilliant victory at Austerlitz(Fig. 4). In addition to Napoleon, the Emperor of Austria and the Russian Emperor Alexander I personally participated in this battle. The defeat of the anti-Napoleonic coalition in central Europe allowed Napoleon to withdraw Austria from the war and focus on other regions of Europe. So, in 1806, he led an active campaign to seize the Kingdom of Naples, which was an ally of Russia and England against Napoleon. Napoleon wanted to place his brother on the throne of Naples Jerome(Fig. 5), and in 1806 he made another of his brothers king of the Netherlands, LouisIBonaparte(Fig. 6).

Rice. 4. Battle of Austerlitz ()

Rice. 5. Jerome Bonaparte ()

Rice. 6. Louis I Bonaparte ()

In 1806, Napoleon managed to radically solve the German problem. He eliminated a state that had existed for almost 1000 years - Holy Roman Empire. An association was created from 16 German states, called Confederation of the Rhine. Napoleon himself became the protector (protector) of this Union of the Rhine. In fact, these territories were also brought under his control.

Feature these wars, which in history were called Napoleonic Wars, it was that the composition of France's opponents changed all the time. By the end of 1806, the anti-Napoleonic coalition included completely different states: Russia, England, Prussia and Sweden. Austria and the Kingdom of Naples were no longer in this coalition. In October 1806, the coalition was almost completely defeated. In just two battles, under Auerstedt and Jena, Napoleon managed to deal with the Allied troops and force them to sign a peace treaty. At Auerstedt and Jena, Napoleon defeated the Prussian troops. Now nothing stopped him from moving further north. Napoleonic troops soon occupied Berlin. Thus, another important rival of Napoleon's in Europe was taken out of the game.

November 21, 1806 Napoleon signed the most important for the history of France decree on the continental blockade(a ban on all countries subject to him to trade and generally conduct any business with England). It was England that Napoleon considered his main enemy. In response, England blocked French ports. However, France could not actively resist England's trade with other territories.

Russia remained a rival. At the beginning of 1807, Napoleon managed to defeat Russian troops in two battles in East Prussia.

July 8, 1807 Napoleon and AlexanderIsigned the Peace of Tilsit(Fig. 7). This treaty, concluded on the border of Russia and French-controlled territories, proclaimed good neighborly relations between Russia and France. Russia pledged to join the continental blockade. However, this agreement meant only a temporary mitigation, but not an overcoming of the contradictions between France and Russia.

Rice. 7. Peace of Tilsit 1807 ()

Napoleon had a difficult relationship with By Pope PiusVII(Fig. 8). Napoleon and the Pope had an agreement on the division of powers, but their relationship began to deteriorate. Napoleon considered church property to belong to France. The Pope did not tolerate this and after the coronation of Napoleon in 1805 he returned to Rome. In 1808, Napoleon brought his troops into Rome and deprived the pope of temporal power. In 1809, Pius VII issued a special decree in which he cursed the robbers of church property. However, he did not mention Napoleon in this decree. This epic ended with the Pope being almost forcibly transported to France and forced to live in the Fontainebleau Palace.

Rice. 8. Pope Pius VII ()

As a result of these conquests and Napoleon's diplomatic efforts, by 1812 a huge part of Europe was under his control. Through relatives, military leaders or military conquests, Napoleon subjugated almost all the states of Europe. Only England, Russia, Sweden, Portugal and Ottoman Empire, as well as Sicily and Sardinia.

On June 24, 1812, Napoleonic army invaded Russia. The beginning of this campaign was successful for Napoleon. He managed to cover a significant part of the territory Russian Empire and even capture Moscow. He could not hold the city. At the end of 1812, Napoleon's army fled from Russia and again entered the territory of Poland and the German states. The Russian command decided to continue the pursuit of Napoleon outside the territory of the Russian Empire. This went down in history as Foreign campaign of the Russian army. He was very successful. Even before the beginning of spring 1813, Russian troops managed to take Berlin.

From October 16 to 19, 1813, a meeting took place near Leipzig. largest battle in the history of the Napoleonic wars, known as "battle of the nations"(Fig. 9). The battle received this name due to the fact that almost half a million people took part in it. At the same time, Napoleon had 190 thousand soldiers. His rivals, led by the British and Russians, had approximately 300 thousand soldiers. The numerical superiority was very important. In addition, Napoleon's troops were not as ready as they were in 1805 or 1809. A significant part of the old guard was destroyed, and therefore Napoleon had to take into his army people who did not have serious military training. This battle ended unsuccessfully for Napoleon.

Rice. 9. Battle of Leipzig 1813 ()

The Allies made Napoleon a lucrative offer: they offered him to retain his imperial throne if he agreed to reduce France to the borders of 1792, that is, he had to give up all his conquests. Napoleon indignantly refused this offer.

March 1, 1814 members of the anti-Napoleonic coalition - England, Russia, Austria and Prussia - signed Chaumont Treaty. It prescribed the actions of the parties to eliminate Napoleon's regime. The parties to the treaty pledged to deploy 150 thousand soldiers in order to resolve the French issue once and for all.

Despite the fact that the Treaty of Chaumont was only one in a series of European treaties of the 19th century, it was given a special place in the history of mankind. The Treaty of Chaumont was one of the first treaties aimed not at joint campaigns of conquest (it was not aggressive), but at joint defense. The signatories of the Treaty of Chaumont insisted that the wars that had rocked Europe for 15 years would finally end and the era of the Napoleonic Wars would end.

Almost a month after the signing of this agreement, March 31, 1814, Russian troops entered Paris(Fig. 10). This ended the period of the Napoleonic wars. Napoleon abdicated the throne and was exiled to the island of Elba, which was given to him for life. It seemed that his story was over, but Napoleon tried to return to power in France. You will learn about this in the next lesson.

Rice. 10. Russian troops enter Paris ()

References

1. Jomini. Political and military life of Napoleon. A book dedicated to Napoleon's military campaigns until 1812

2. Manfred A.Z. Napoleon Bonaparte. - M.: Mysl, 1989.

3. Noskov V.V., Andreevskaya T.P. General history. 8th grade. - M., 2013.

4. Tarle E.V. "Napoleon". - 1994.

5. Tolstoy L.N. "War and Peace"

6. Chandler D. Napoleon’s military campaigns. - M., 1997.

7. Yudovskaya A.Ya. General history. Modern History, 1800-1900, 8th grade. - M., 2012.

Homework

1. Name Napoleon’s main opponents during 1805-1814.

2. Which battles from the series of Napoleonic wars left the greatest mark on history? Why are they interesting?

3. Tell us about Russia's participation in the Napoleonic wars.

4. What was the significance of the Chaumont Treaty for European states?

Introduction

Napoleonic anti-French coalition war

The Napoleonic Wars (1799-1815) were fought by France during the Consulate and Empire of Napoleon I against coalitions of European states.

Of course, one cannot study the Napoleonic Wars without the personality of Napoleon himself. He wanted to do the same thing that the Romans wanted to do with the world - to civilize it, to erase borders, turning Europe into one country, with common money, weights, civil laws, local self-government, the flourishing of sciences and crafts... He embraced the Great French Revolution with fervor approval. His activities in Corsica and the capture of the city of Toulon marked the beginning of Bonaparte's rapid ascent through military service.

Bonaparte showed himself to be a remarkable master of strategy and maneuver tactics. Fighting against a numerically superior enemy. Victorious Wars with coalitions of powers, brilliant victories, and a huge expansion of the territory of the empire contributed to the transformation of N. I into the de facto ruler of all Western (except Great Britain) and Central Europe.

All Napoleonic wars were fought in the interests of the French bourgeoisie, which sought to establish its military-political, commercial and industrial hegemony in Europe, annex new territories to France and win the struggle with Great Britain for world trade and colonial primacy. The Napoleonic wars, which did not stop until the fall of the empire of Napoleon I, were generally wars of conquest. They were conducted in the interests of the French bourgeoisie, which sought to consolidate its military-political, commercial and industrial dominance on the continent, pushing the English bourgeoisie into the background. But they also contained progressive elements, because objectively contributed to undermining the foundations of the feudal system and cleared the way for the development of capitalist relations in a number of European states: (the abolition of dozens of small feudal states in Germany, the introduction of the Napoleonic civil code in some conquered countries, the confiscation and sale of part of the monastic lands, the elimination of a number of privileges of the nobility, etc.). The main opponents of France during the Napoleonic wars were England, Austria and Russia.

1. Causes and nature of the Napoleonic wars

The Napoleonic era had not only a military-political aspect, in many ways the war acquired a general character, turned into a war of economies and peoples, something that later became an axiom in the 20th century during the years of two world wars. If earlier the war had the character of military clashes between relatively small professional armies, then in the Napoleonic era war already permeated all spheres of public and state life of the participating countries. The nature of the armed forces also changed; they began to turn into mass armies. This inevitably entailed changes in relations between state and public institutions.

There are several opinions about the nature of the Napoleonic wars and the reasons that caused them. Let's name just a few of them: the continuation of the revolutionary wars of the French Republic, the fruit of the exorbitant ambition of one man (Napoleon), the desire of the feudal "old regime" states to destroy this man (Napoleon), the continuation of the centuries-old confrontation between France and England for dominance in the world, the struggle between the ideologies of the new and the old regimes (that is, the clash of young capitalism with feudalism).

2. First anti-French coalition 1793-1797

The revolution that took place in France in 1789 had a strong impact on neighboring states and prompted their governments to resort to decisive measures against the threatening danger. Emperor Leopold II and the Prussian King Frederick William II, at a personal meeting in Pillnitz, agreed to stop the spread of revolutionary principles. They were also encouraged to do this by the insistence of the French emigrants, who formed a corps of troops in Koblenz under the command of the Prince of Condé. Military preparations were begun, but the monarchs did not dare to open hostile actions for a long time. The initiative came from France, which on April 20, 1792 declared war on Austria for its hostile actions against France. Austria and Prussia entered into a defensive and offensive alliance, which was gradually joined by almost all other German states, as well as Spain, Piedmont and the Kingdom of Naples.

Hostilities began with the invasion of French troops into the possessions of the German states on the Rhine, which was followed by the invasion of coalition troops into France. Soon the enemies were repulsed and France itself began active military operations against the coalition - it invaded Spain, the Kingdom of Sardinia and the West German states. Soon, in 1793, the Battle of Toulon took place, where the young and talented commander Napoleon Bonaparte first showed himself. After a series of victories, the enemies were forced to recognize the French Republic and all its conquests (with the exception of the British), but then, after the situation in France worsened, the war resumed.

3. Second anti-French coalition (1798-1801)

The conditional date for the beginning of the Napoleonic wars is considered to be the establishment in France during the coup of 18 Brumaire (November 9), 1799, of the military dictatorship of Napoleon Bonaparte, who became the first consul. At this time, the country was already at war with the 2nd anti-French coalition, which was formed in 1798-99 by England, Russia, Austria, Turkey and the Kingdom of Naples

Having come to power, Bonaparte sent a proposal to the English king and the Austrian emperor to begin peace negotiations, which they rejected. France began to form eastern borders a large army under the command of General Moreau. At the same time, on the Swiss border, in an atmosphere of secrecy, the formation of the so-called “reserve” army was underway, which delivered the first blow to the Austrian troops in Italy. Having made a difficult transition through the Saint Bernard Pass in the Alps, on June 14, 1800, at the Battle of Marengo, Bonaparte defeated the Austrians operating under the command of Field Marshal Melas. In December 1800, Moreau's Rhine army defeated the Austrians at Hohenlinden (Bavaria). In February 1801, Austria was forced to make peace with France and recognize its seizures in Belgium and on the left bank of the Rhine. After this, the 2nd coalition actually collapsed, England agreed in October 1801 to sign the terms of a preliminary (i.e. preliminary) agreement, and on March 27, 1802, the Treaty of Amiens was concluded between England, on the one hand, and France, Spain and the Batavian Republic - on the other.

4. Third anti-French coalition (1805)

However, already in 1803 the war between them resumed, and in 1805 the 3rd anti-French coalition was formed consisting of England, Russia, Austria and the Kingdom of Naples. Unlike the previous ones, it declared its goal not to fight against revolutionary France, but against Bonaparte’s aggressive policy. Having become Emperor Napoleon I in 1804, he prepared the landing of the French expeditionary army in England. But on October 21, 1805, at the Battle of Trafalgar, the English fleet led by Admiral Nelson destroyed the combined Franco-Spanish fleet. However, on the continent, Napoleonic troops won one victory after another: in October 1805, the Austrian army of General Mack capitulated without a fight at Ulm; in November Napoleon victory march entered Vienna; On December 2, 1805, Emperor Napoleon defeated the armies of the Emperors of Austria Franz I and Russia Alexander I at the Battle of Austerlitz. After this battle, the third anti-French coalition collapsed, and Austria had to accept difficult conditions Peace of Bratislava, which practically meant the loss of Austria political influence in Southern Germany and Southern Europe, and France became a powerful land power. Now France's biggest opponent in the struggle for hegemony in Europe was Great Britain, which, after the Battle of Cape Trafalgar, held unconditional dominance over the seas.

As a result of the war, Austria was completely ousted from Germany and Italy, and France established its hegemony on the European continent. On March 15, 1806, Napoleon transferred the Grand Duchy of Cleves and Berg into the possession of his brother-in-law I. Murat. He expelled the local Bourbon dynasty from Naples, which fled to Sicily under the protection of the English fleet, and on March 30 placed his brother Joseph on the Neapolitan throne. On May 24, he transformed the Batavian Republic into the Kingdom of Holland, placing his other brother Louis at its head. In Germany, on June 12, the Confederation of the Rhine was formed from 17 states under the protectorate of Napoleon; On August 6, the Austrian Emperor Franz II renounced the German crown - the Holy Roman Empire ceased to exist.

5. Fourth (1806-1807) and fifth (1808-1809) anti-French coalitions

The war against Napoleon was continued by England and Russia, which were soon joined by Prussia and Sweden, concerned about the strengthening of French dominance in Europe. In September 1806, the 4th anti-French coalition of European states was formed. A month later, during two battles, on the same day, October 14, 1806, the Prussian army was destroyed: near Jena, Napoleon defeated the units of Prince Hohenlohe, and at Auerstedt, Marshal Davout defeated the main Prussian forces of King Frederick William and the Duke of Brunswick. Napoleon triumphantly entered Berlin. Prussia was occupied. The Russian army, moving to help the allies, met the French, first near Pultusk on December 26, 1806, then at Preussisch-Eylau on February 8, 1807. Despite the bloodshed, these battles did not give an advantage to either side, but in June 1807, Napoleon won at the Battle of Friedland over the Russian troops commanded by L.L. Bennigsen. On July 7, 1807, a meeting between the French and Russian emperors took place in the middle of the Neman River on a raft, and the Peace of Tilsit was concluded. According to this world, Russia recognized all of Napoleon’s conquests in Europe and joined the “Continental Blockade” of the British Isles proclaimed by him in 1806. In the spring of 1809, England and Austria again united in the 5th anti-French coalition, but already in May 1809 the French entered Vienna, and on July 5-6, in the battle of Wagram, the Austrians were again defeated. Austria agreed to pay indemnity and joined the continental blockade. A significant part of Europe came under Napoleon's rule.

6. End of the Napoleonic Wars

The national liberation movement that was growing in Europe acquired its greatest scope in Spain and Germany. However, the fate of Napoleon's empire was decided during his campaign in Russia. During Patriotic War 1812 strategy of the Russian army, led by Field Marshal M.I. Kutuzov, partisan movement contributed to the death of more than 400 thousand " Great Army" This caused a new rise in the national liberation struggle in Europe, and people's militia began to be created in a number of states. In 1813, the 6th anti-French coalition was formed, which included Russia, England, Prussia, Sweden, Austria and a number of other states. In October 1813, as a result of the “Battle of the Nations” near Leipzig, German territory was liberated from the French. Napoleon's army retreated to the borders of France and was then defeated on its own soil. On March 31, Allied troops entered Paris. On April 6, Napoleon I signed his abdication and was exiled from France to the island of Elba.

In 1815, during the famous “Hundred Days” (March 20 - June 22), Napoleon made a last attempt to regain his former power. The defeat at the Battle of Waterloo (Belgium) on June 18, 1815, inflicted on him by the troops of the 7th Coalition under the command of the Duke of Wellington and Marshal Blucher, ended the history of the Napoleonic wars. The Congress of Vienna (November 1, 1814 - June 9, 1815) decided the fate of France, securing the redistribution of territories European countries in the interests of the victorious states. The wars of liberation that were waged against Napoleon were inevitably associated with the partial restoration of feudal-absolutist orders in Europe (the “Holy Alliance” of European monarchs, concluded with the aim of suppressing national liberation and revolutionary movement in Europe).

Results

As a result of the Napoleonic Wars, France's military power was broken and it lost its dominant position in Europe. The main political force on the continent became the Holy Alliance of Monarchs led by Russia; Great Britain retained its status as the world's leading maritime power.

The wars of conquest of Napoleonic France threatened the national independence of many European nations; at the same time, they contributed to the destruction of the feudal-monarchical order on the continent - the French army brought on its bayonets the principles of a new civil society (Civil Code) and the abolition of feudal relations; Napoleon's liquidation of many small feudal states in Germany facilitated the process of its future unification.

References

1. Bezotosny V.M. Napoleonic Wars. - M.: Veche, 2010.

2. Zalessky K.A. Biographical encyclopedic dictionary. Napoleonic Wars, 1799-1815, M., 2003

3. Easdale C.J. Napoleonic Wars. Rostov-on-Don, 1997

4. Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron Napoleonic Wars. - St. Petersburg: Publishing company “F.A. Brockhaus - I.A. Efron", 1907-1909

5. Chandler D. Military campaigns of Napoleon. The triumph and tragedy of the conqueror. M., 2000

6. http://www.krugosvet.ru/

7. http://www.bezmani.ru/spravka/bse/base/3/014204.htm

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Beginning of the 19th century was a dramatic period in European history. For almost 15 years in a row, battles raged in Europe, blood was shed, states collapsed and borders were redrawn. Napoleonic France was at the center of the events. She won a number of victories over other powers, but was ultimately defeated and lost all her conquests.

Establishment of the dictatorship of Napoleon Bonaparte

At the end of 1799, a coup d'etat took place in France, as a result of which the Directory was overthrown, and power actually passed to General Napoleon Bonaparte. In 1804 he became emperor under the name Napoleon I. The First Republic, proclaimed in 1792, fell and the First Empire was established in France.

Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821) was born on the island of Corsica into a poor noble family. After studying at the Paris Military School, he served in the army and became a general at the age of 24. Napoleon worked up to 20 hours a day, read and thought a lot, and studied history and literature well. He combined an iron will with exorbitant ambition, a thirst for power and glory.

The French emperor wanted to rule the country alone. He established dictatorial rule and became an unlimited ruler. Criticism of his policies threatened with arrest and even the death penalty. Napoleon generously rewarded faithful service with lands, castles, ranks and orders.

Napoleon at the Saint Bernard Pass, 1801. Jacques Louis David.
The painting was commissioned by the emperor, executed with painterly brilliance, but cold and pompous
The image of Napoleon is idealized.

Unlike pre-revolutionary royal France, which was dominated by the nobility, imperial France was dominated by the big bourgeoisie. Napoleon defended primarily the interests of bankers, but he was also supported by wealthy peasants. They were afraid that if the overthrown Bourbon dynasty came to power, feudal orders would be restored and the lands acquired during the revolution would be taken away. The emperor was afraid of workers and did not allow them to go on strike.

In general, Napoleon's policy contributed to the growth of industrial and agricultural production, the preservation and increase of wealth, although a lot of funds were spent on military purposes. In 1804, France adopted the “Civil Code” (a set of laws), which provided for the protection of property, large and small, from any encroachment. Subsequently, he served as a model for legislators in many countries.

The main foreign policy goal of the empire was to establish French dominance in Europe and throughout the world. No one has ever managed to conquer the whole world. Napoleon was confident that he could defeat everyone by force of arms. For this purpose, a large, well-armed, trained army was formed, and talented military leaders were selected.

Wars of 1800 - 1807

By the beginning of the 19th century. The French already ruled the territory of a number of modern states - Belgium, Luxembourg, Holland, Switzerland, parts of Germany and Italy. Continuing his aggressive policy, Napoleon defeated Austria in 1800, forced it to recognize all French conquests and withdraw from the war. Of the great powers, only England continued the fight against France. It had the most developed industry and the strongest navy, but the British land army was weaker than the French. Therefore, she needed allies to continue the fight against Napoleon. In 1805, Russia and Austria, who had large ground forces and were concerned about France's plans of conquest, entered into an alliance with England.

Active military operations resumed at sea and on land.

Napoleon Bonaparte. English caricature, 1810.
“At home and abroad, I rule with the help of fear, which I inspire in everyone,” Napoleon said about himself.

In October 1805, an English squadron under the command of Admiral Nelson almost completely destroyed the French fleet at Cape Trafalgar. But on land Napoleon was successful. On December 2, he won a major victory over the Russian-Austrian army near Austerlitz (now the city of Slavkov in the Czech Republic). Bonaparte considered it the most brilliant of the forty battles he won. Austria was forced to make peace and cede Venice and some other possessions to France. Prussia, concerned about Napoleon's victories, entered the war against France.

But Prussia also suffered a crushing defeat, and in October 1806 French troops entered Berlin. Here Napoleon issued a decree on a continental blockade, prohibiting the French and countries dependent on France from trading with England. He sought to strangle his enemy with economic isolation, but France itself suffered from the cessation of the import of many necessary English products.

Military operations meanwhile moved to East Prussia. Here Napoleon won several victories over Russian troops, achieved at the cost of great effort. The French army was weakened. Therefore, on July 7, 1807, in Tilsit (now the city of Sovetsk in the Kaliningrad region), France signed a treaty of peace and alliance with Russia. Napoleon took away more than half of its territory from Prussia.

From Tilsit to Waterloo

After the signing of the Treaty of Tilsit, French troops entered Spain and Portugal. In Spain, they first encountered popular resistance - here a widespread guerrilla movement began - the guerrillas. Near Bailen in 1808, Spanish partisans captured an entire French division. “My troops, it seems, are commanded not by experienced generals, but by postmasters,” Napoleon was indignant. The national liberation movement also intensified in Portugal and Germany.

In the battle of Leipzig, known as the “Battle of the Nations” (October 1813), Napoleon suffered a crushing defeat: 60 thousand soldiers from his 190 thousand army died.

The French emperor first decided to pacify the Spaniards and, at the head of a large army, entered Madrid. But soon he had to return to Paris, as it was brewing new war with Austria. The conquest of the Iberian Peninsula was never completed.

The Franco-Austrian War of 1809 was short-lived. In July, Napoleon won a decisive victory at Wagram and took away a significant part of Austria's possessions.

The French Empire reached the pinnacle of its power and glory. Its borders extended from the Elbe to the Tiber, and it was home to 70 million people. A number of states were in vassalage from France.

Napoleon considered the next task to be subjugation to the Russian Empire. The campaign against Russia in 1812 ended in complete disaster for him. Almost the entire French army was killed, the emperor himself barely escaped. Exhausted France was unable to stop the advance of the troops of its opponents (Russia, Prussia, Austria) - on March 31, 1814, they entered Paris. Napoleon abdicated the throne and was exiled by the victors to the island of Elba in the Mediterranean Sea. In France, the Bourbon dynasty, overthrown by the revolution of the 18th century, was restored, and Louis XVIII became king.

Within a few months, the reign of Louis XVIII, who sought to revive the pre-revolutionary order, caused strong discontent among the population. Taking advantage of this, Napoleon landed in the south of France with a small detachment of a thousand soldiers and marched on Paris. The peasants greeted him with cries of “Death to the Bourbons!” Long live the Emperor!” The soldiers went over to his side.

On March 20, 1815, Napoleon entered Paris and restored the empire. But a military alliance was formed against him, which included many European states. On June 18, 1815, English and Prussian troops inflicted a final defeat on Napoleon's army at Waterloo in Belgium. After 100 days of reign, Napoleon abdicated the throne for the second time and was exiled to the island of St. Helena in the South Atlantic Ocean. This episode in French history is called the “Hundred Days” period.

On the island of St. Helena, Napoleon dictated his memoirs, in which he acknowledged the invasion of Spain and Russia as his two biggest mistakes. May 5, 1821 Napoleon died. In 1840, his ashes were reburied in Paris.

Results and significance of the Napoleonic wars

The Napoleonic Wars had a controversial impact on European history. Being aggressive in nature, they were accompanied by robberies and violence against entire nations. About 1.7 million people died in them. At the same time, Napoleon's bourgeois empire pushed the feudal countries of Europe onto the path of capitalist development. In the territories occupied by French troops, feudal orders were partially destroyed and new laws were introduced.

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A striking example testified to the unusual dependence and servility of French newspapers. After Napoleon's landing in France in March 1815, the tone of newspaper reports changed daily as he approached Paris. “The Corsican cannibal has landed in Juan Bay,” the first message said. Later newspapers reported: “The tiger has arrived at Cannes,” “The monster has spent the night in Grenoble,” “The tyrant has passed through Lyon,” “The usurper is on his way to Dijon,” and finally, “His Imperial Majesty is expected today in his faithful Paris.”

Used literature:
V. S. Koshelev, I. V. Orzhekhovsky, V. I. Sinitsa / World history Modern times XIX - early XX century, 1998.