Structure and classification of mushrooms. Mushrooms: classification, general characteristics, structural features, methods of reproduction Classification and the most important systematic groups of fungi

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6. Classification of soils based on mechanical and physicochemical properties Depending on the content of sand and clay in the soil, the following 7 classes of soils can be distinguished.1) Very heavy or clay contains 50–5% clay2) Heavy loamy 50–33) Medium loamy 33 –54) Loamy

According to your position mushrooms- (lat. Fungi or Mycota) occupy a special place in living nature and are distinguished into a separate, independent kingdom of living organisms. And if the term Fungi is an international name mushroom kingdom, then Mycota is more of a scientific term that is found in biology, biochemistry, mycology and pharmaceuticals. According to a number of characteristics, this kingdom occupies an intermediate position between the kingdoms of plants and animals, and for its correct taxonomy, all organisms related to fungi are now divided into 3 independent evolutionary trunks and distributed among 4 kingdoms of living nature:

real mushrooms(Fungi) pseudofungi(Protozoa) mushroom-like protozoa(Protista) protozoa(Chromista)

Taxonomy of fungi- this is the section in mycology, dealing with the natural classification of fungi. The principles of taxonomy in mycology are based on the general principles of biological classification. Thus, fungi are one of the most difficult objects for taxonomy and especially for the development of a natural (phylogenetic) system. Phylogenetics- the field of biological systematics that studies the identification (definition or clarification) of evolutionary relationships among different types wildlife, both real and extinct. Scientific ideas about fungi, their origin and place in the system of the living world developed intensively and often changed throughout the entire period of study of these organisms. And this was reflected in their taxonomy. The biodiversity of fungi in wildlife is quite impressive and, according to taxonomists, is about 1.5 million, of which only about 4% have been studied so far. Components taxonomy of fungi are: nomenclature , taxonomy And classification . Taxonomy of fungi is the science of their classification. But before classifying mushrooms, they need to be studied well and correlated with certain categories, the so-called - taxa(species, genera, families, orders, classes, divisions, groups). A mushroom nomenclature- this is the prerogative of the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature and is adopted at each regular International Botanical Congress. The last such Congress took place in 1999. Mushrooms(lat. Fungi or Mycota) - the kingdom of living nature, uniting organisms whose cells contain nuclei that combine the characteristics of both plants and animals. Science studies mushrooms mycology, which is considered a branch of botany, since mushrooms were previously classified as part of the plant kingdom. Back in the 18th century, the Swedish physician and naturalist Carl von Linnaeus (1707 - 1778), the creator of a unified system for classifying flora and fauna, in his work “System of Nature,” already expressed doubts about the placement of fungi in the plant kingdom. And his compatriot, botanist and mycologist Elias Magnus Fries (1794 - 1878), who is also the “creator of mycology,” proposed in 1831 to distinguish mushrooms into a separate kingdom. But the final understanding of mushrooms as a separate world was formed in science only in the 70s of the 20th century, when rich data on genetics, cytology and biochemistry were accumulated. Thus, the scientific term itself mushrooms at the beginning of the 21st century and became the name of a group in the biological classification, consisting of discrete objects united on the basis general properties and signs of one of the kingdoms of living nature. The biological and ecological representation of fungi is too large and, therefore, it is one of the most diverse systems of living organisms, which has become an integral part of all terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. According to modern estimates, there are from 100 to 250 thousand, and according to some estimates, from 1.5 to 2 million species of mushrooms on our planet. By now, the concept kingdom of mushrooms, combines 3 groups of mushrooms , which describe more than 4 departments of mushrooms , about 36 classes of fungi , over 140 orders of mushrooms , more than 560 fungal families , more than 8,280 fungal genera (and 5,100 generic synonyms for them), more than 97,860 types of mushrooms .

Methods for classifying mushrooms.

Mushrooms have always been very difficult systematize(that is classify). Classification implies a strict division of mushrooms into certain, clearly demarcated nomenclatures, the so-called taxa. These items are distributed hierarchically in an organized and orderly system. Or, in other words, they are mutually subordinate and located at different levels, the so-called ranks. Therefore, at present, mushrooms are classified as an independent kingdom of living nature, but during the period of creation and formation of taxonomy of fungi, they were classified as plants. This explains the fact that in the taxonomy of fungi there is the same taxa (delimited nomenclatures) as in plants: these are groups , departments , classes , orders , families , childbirth And species . Modern mycology suggests the following (science-based) classification of mushrooms. Mushrooms in nature are combined into kingdom of mushrooms , which in turn consists of: --> groups of mushrooms ; --> departments of mushrooms ; --> classes of fungi ; --> orders of mushrooms ; --> mushroom family ; --> fungal genera ; --> types of mushrooms , combining many subdivisions, subclasses, subgroups, etc.

But such a scientific interpretation of the classification of the mushroom world may seem interesting only to theorists or competent specialists. And, based on this, for ordinary mushroom pickers (that is, practitioners), we tried to simplify this scientifically based taxonomy of mushrooms and streamlined it to what is necessary and sufficient for any non-specialist, according to which: all mushrooms combined into a separate kingdom of mushrooms we propose to distribute it to: --> orders of fungi ; --> discharges of mushrooms ; --> mushroom sections ; --> fungal subgroups ; --> types of mushrooms ; --> mushroom categories ; --> mushroom seasons , which, just as in the case of a scientifically based method of systematizing mushrooms, should be divided into their characteristic components.

If, for someone, a scientifically based interpretation of the facts of the classification of mushrooms may not seem at all interesting, and a vitally applicable (applied) formulation of the system of the mushroom world may become more useful, then for convenience and to avoid confusion, such a “simplified” taxonomy mushrooms are considered in a separate left side menu with red buttons. And we can only hope that relying on this classification it will be much easier to understand the complex world of mushrooms. But if someone is not satisfied with it, then there is the opportunity to offer your own, different, unique taxonomy of the mushroom world, looking at which you will not want to object! Well, for everyone else who scientific approach in the matter of fungal taxonomy will still be interesting, you have the opportunity to familiarize yourself with the pages of this section, which, albeit not completely, still covers the most important and interesting points of the concept - scientific mushroom classification.

Fungi are a group of microorganisms widespread in nature. Some fungi are active agents of spoilage of food products, goods and materials of organic origin (paper, wood, fabrics, leather goods), others are used in industry for the production of cheeses, fermented milk products, for pickling vegetables, for the production of various organic acids, enzyme preparations, antibiotics, etc.

The structure of mushrooms . The vegetative body of most fungi is a mycelium or mycelium, consisting of thin intertwining threads called hyphae. Such fungi are called filamentous (they are also called mold).

Fungal hyphae can be straight, curved, spiral-shaped, with swellings or thickenings, with depressions and short shoots “roots” that serve for attachment to the substrate. The surface of the hyphae can be spiked, smooth, reticulate, fibrous, and sometimes folded. The diameter of the hyphae ranges from 2 to 50 micrometers or more.

Depending on the structure of the mycelium, fungi are divided into higher (representatives of the classes of ascomycetes and deuteromycetes) and lower (class of phycomycetes). In higher fungi, the hyphae are separated by partitions (septa), in the center of which there is a large pore.

Mushrooms are cynocytic microorganisms. This means that they grow and at the same time nuclear divisions occur, but cell divisions do not occur. Thus, the vegetative body of the fungus is one large multinucleate cell.

Figure 5 – Fungal hyphae: a – nonseptate; b – septate.

All microscopic fungi can reproduce vegetatively from a piece of mycelium.

Fungal cell structure .

Fungi have a eukaryotic cell type.

The cells of most fungi have next building:

Dense multilayer cell wall, consisting of 80-90% polysaccharides (the main polysaccharide is chitin, some have cellulose, proteins, lipids, and polyphosphates are present in small quantities). The cell wall performs a support-mechanical and protective function;

Under the cell wall there is a three-layer cytoplasmic membrane;

The cytoplasm contains numerous organoids;

- mitochondria– formations from lipoprotein membranes in which energy processes are carried out and adesine triphosphamide (ATP) is synthesized, a substance rich in energy;

- endoplasmic reticulum(endoplasmic reticulum) - a membrane system of interconnected tubules (in some places narrowing or expanding). It penetrates the cytoplasm and is associated with the cytoplasmic membrane and the nuclear membrane. The synthesis of many substances (lipids, carbohydrates, etc.) takes place here;

Figure 6 – Diagram of the structure of a fungal cell: 1 – endoplasmic reticulum; 2 - mitochondria; 3 – cytoplasm; 4 – cell wall; 5 – core; 6 – nuclear membrane; 7 – cytoplasmic membrane; 8 – ribosomes; 9 – Golgi apparatus; 10 – lysosomes.

- Golgi apparatus- a membrane system associated with the nuclear membrane and endoplasmic reticulum. Functions – transport to the nucleus of substances synthesized in the endoplasmic reticulum, removal of metabolic products from the cell;

- ribosomes– very small, round, numerous formations. Some are in a free state, some are attached to membranes. Protein synthesis occurs in ribosomes;

- lysosomes- small round bodies covered with a membrane. They contain enzymes that digest (break down) proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids coming from outside;

- core– (or several nuclei) is surrounded by a double membrane. The nucleoplasm contains the nucleolus and chromosomes containing DNA. The nuclear envelope contains pores that ensure the transport of substances between the nucleus and the cytoplasm;

- vacuoles- cavities surrounded by a membrane. Filled with cell sap and inclusions of reserve nutrients (volutin, glycogen, fat).

Mushroom propagation.

A feature of mushrooms is a wide variety of methods and organs of reproduction.

The same fungus can have several forms of reproduction. At the same time, the appearance of the mushroom changes so much that in each of them the mushroom is considered as an independent species.

Fungi, unlike bacteria, have three main methods of reproduction: vegetative, asexual and sexual.

Vegetative Reproduction occurs by budding, division and parts of the mycelium. During division, special fragments can be formed - oidia (arthrospores), which are formed as a result of the dismemberment of hyphae growing on a nutrient substrate into a mycelium. Fungi also reproduce by vaults, which, once on a nutrient substrate, germinate and form hyphae.

IN vegetative propagation chlamydospore cells (smut) are involved, formed on hyphae and resistant to unfavorable conditions.

The organs of asexual and sexual reproduction of fungi are diverse in structure and nature of formation and are the basis for their classification.

With asexual During reproduction, specialized cells are formed - spores, and with their help reproduction is carried out. Spores are formed at the ends of special hyphae, which have a different structure than other hyphae.

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b

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Figure 7 - Morphological features mushrooms of various classes:

a - Mucor; b - Penicillium; c - Aspergillus; d – Alternaria.

In ascomycete fungi, external spores develop at the ends of such hyphae, located singly, in a group or in a chain. These disputes are called conidia, and the hyphae bearing them - conidiophores. After maturation, the conidia fall off and, under favorable conditions, give rise to a new mycelium.

In phycomycete fungi, spores are formed inside round cells called sporangia, the spores contained in them are called sporangiospores. Sporangia develop at the ends of hyphae called sporangiophores. Ripe sporangia burst and spores spill out of them, which, under favorable conditions, germinate into hyphae and form a new mushroom.

Deuteromycetes can reproduce by multicellular conidia.

Figure 8 – Conidiophores of imperfect fungi: a – Botrytis; b – Fusarium; c – Alternaria; d – Cladosporium.

Mushrooms produce a huge number of spores that can be transported by air currents over considerable distances.

Conidia and sporangia have different shapes and colors, due to which the mushrooms take on the appearance of colored plaques during sporulation. And the differences in structure and appearance Conidiophores and sporangiophores are used to recognize fungi.

At the core sexual reproduction lies the fusion of two sex cells - gametes - with the subsequent union of their nuclei. The process takes place in three stages: plasmogamy, karyogamy, meiosis.

Plasmogamy is the fusion of cells and the bringing together of nuclei.

Karyogamy is the fusion of nuclei into one diploid nucleus.

Meiosis is the division of a diploid nucleus and the restoration of a haploid (simple), unpaired set of chromosomes in the nuclei.

As a result of this fusion, the so-called zygospore(when two outwardly identical cells merge) or oospore(when male and female cells merge). Under favorable conditions, zygospores and oospores germinate into new mold.

Higher multicellular fungi form basidia And ascospores.

Basidiospores develop at the upper end of a special sac-like cell - the basidium, and ascospores - in a cylindrical cell - the ascus (bag).

Basidia and asci most often develop in groups or layers in special fruiting bodies consisting of tightly intertwined hyphae. The caps and stems of edible mushrooms are the fruiting bodies.

Commodity classification edible mushrooms is based on the difference in the structure and location of the reproductive organs of fungi.

Fungi that can reproduce asexually and sexually are called perfect. Fungi that reproduce only asexually and are not capable of sexual reproduction are called imperfect.

Some fungi are capable of forming special cells, which are the resting stages of fungal development. For example, ergot forms sclerotia, which often infect cereal ears.

Sclerotia They are dark-colored solid formations of tightly intertwined hyphae. They contain a small amount of water, but are rich in reserve nutrients. Sclerotia are resistant to external influences, and under favorable conditions they germinate and form new mycelium.

Figure 9 – Sclerotia of fungi: a – sclerotia of Rhizoctonia; b – sclerotium of Papulaspora; c – sclerotium of Claviceps purpurea.

The smut fungus forms chlamydospores - dense, separate sections of hyphae covered with a thick shell. Smut also attacks cereal plants. Chlamydospores form entire clusters in the ears in the form of black dust. Like sclerotia, under favorable conditions they germinate and give rise to a new fungus.

Taxonomy of fungi

All fungi, united in the kingdom of Fungi (Mycota or Myceta), are divided into two divisions: slime fungi (or myxomycetes) and actual (or true) mushrooms (eumycetes).

In taxonomy (classification) true mushrooms the main features are: the structure of the mycelium and the types of sexual and asexual reproduction.

True fungi are divided into five classes: chytridiomycetes, oomycetes (phycomycetes), ascomycetes, basidiomycetes and deuteromycetes (imperfect fungi).

Chytridiomycetes (archymycetes). They number about 300 species, the mycelium is absent or underdeveloped. They reproduce asexually (zoospores), using spores produced in sporangia.

Oomycetes (phycomycetes). The mycelium is highly developed, noncellular, multinucleate. Asexual reproduction using zoospores with two flagella. During the sexual process, oospores are formed. Includes about 700 species of mushrooms.

Representatives of this class are late blight, plasmapara and mucoraceae (rhizopus and mucor).

Late blight, or potato fungus, affects potato tubers and tops, as well as tomatoes and eggplants. A whitish fluffy coating forms on the surface of the affected areas, which is a cluster of sporangiophores. Ripe sporangia release spores that can infect healthy vegetables. Phytophthora can overwinter in the soil, forming oospores and chlamydospores there.

Plasmocoupler causes a grape disease called mildew. The fungus penetrates the grape cells and causes their death. The tissue of the affected grapes becomes brown in color and becomes covered with a cobwebby coating consisting of fungal sporangiophores. The plasmapara also produces oospores that can survive for several years.

Figure 10 – Plasmopara viticola mushroom on the underside of a leaf grapevine

Mukor(capitate mold) – the mycelium is loose-felt, white, grayish-white, later turning brown or grayish. Has nonseptate mycelium. They reproduce asexually and sexually with the formation of sporangiophores. Mucor is a common food spoilage agent; it often affects baked goods, fruits and vegetables, grows on the surface of wet grain, malt, Mucor nigricans is the causative agent of sugar beet rot, develops on damp walls of warehouses. Among the mucor fungi there are representatives that cause diseases in animals (mucormycosis) and humans.

Many mucor mushrooms are capable of fermenting sugary substances to form alcohol and organic acids and are used in food industry, as well as for the production of enzyme preparations, carotenoids, and steroids.

Rhizopus forms capitate mold. Widely distributed in nature, soil, plant debris, and feed. Causes spoilage of fruits and vegetables.

Ascomycetes(fruit-bearing mushrooms). They have multicellular septate mycelium. Asexual reproduction occurs with the help of conidia; during the sexual process, asci (bags) are formed on special fruiting bodies, which contain 8 ascospores. This class has a huge number of species - about 30 thousand. Many of them infect cultivated plants and cause food spoilage. A number of ascomycetes find technical application.

Ascomycetes include Aspergillus, Penicillium, Sclerotinia, Venturia, and Ergot. Yeasts (yeasts) are also members of this class of fungi, but they are treated separately due to their particular technical importance.

Figure 13 – Fungus Rhizopus nigricans: 1 – sporangia; 2 – sporangiophores; 3 – rhizoids; 4 – stolons; 5 - disputes

Aspergillus(yellow, olive, black mold) causes spoilage of food products of animal and plant origin. There are more than 200 species. They decompose proteins, fats, polysaccharides. Aerobes. They play an important role in the mineralization of organic substances and cause molding of many foods.

Figure 14 – Aspergillus fungus: a – conidia; b – mycelium; c – formation of a conidiophore with conidia; d – formed conidia with conidiophores.

Some species of aspergillus are used to produce citric and itaconic acids, enzymes, and are used instead of malt in the production of alcohol. There are pathogenic forms (aspergillosis).

Penicillium(green, blue, gray mold) has a racemose structure of conidiophores and is therefore also called racemose. About half of all mold fungi belong to this genus and are found in the soil and air of poorly ventilated rooms. Produces a characteristic musty odor. When drying grain and flour, the smell turns musty. It affects many food products - dairy and meat products, sausages, fruits, materials, etc., and develops on the walls of damp rooms.

Some types of penicillium are used to obtain valuable medicinal drug- penicillin, used for purulent and inflammatory processes. One of the clusters plays an important role in the ripening of Roquefort and Camembert cheeses.

Figure 15 – Penicillium mushroom: a – conidia; b – mycelium; c – formation of a conidiophore with conidia; d – formed conidia with conidiophores.

The ascomycetes include sclerotinia, which causes white rot of fruits and vegetables (carrots, melons etc.). Sclerotinia mycelium penetrates the affected product and forms a white flaky coating on the outside.

Ergot affects cereal crops and sharply reduces their yield. Flour obtained from grain affected by ergot sclerotia is poisonous because the sclerotia contain toxic substances.

Venturia is the cause of scab in apples and pears. The disease manifests itself on fruits in the form of velvety olive-colored spots; the fruits do not ripen and take on an ugly shape.

Ascomycetes also include edible mushrooms truffles, morels and stitches.

Basidiomycetes. These are higher mushrooms with multicellular mycelium. They reproduce mainly sexually with the formation of basidia with basidiospores. Asexual reproduction occurs with the help of conidia.

Basidiomycetes form a large group that includes more than 20 thousand species of fungi.

The group of basidiomycetes includes cap mushrooms, polypores, house mushrooms, smut and rust fungus; they produce fruiting bodies.

Figure 16 – Ergot (Claviceps purpurea): a – rye ear with sclerotia; b – capitate stroma grown on sclerotia; c – section of the stroma (numerous perithecia are located along the periphery); d – perithecia with elongated club-shaped bursae; e – bag with eight filamentous spores.

Cap mushrooms have radially arranged plates on the underside of the cap (honey mushroom, champignon, milk mushroom, etc.) or tubes ( porcini mushroom, boletus, boletus, etc.). Basidia are found on the surface of the plates and inside the tubes. Among the cap mushrooms there are poisonous ones (fly agaric, toadstool, etc.).

The mycelium of cap mushrooms develops in the soil or is partially embedded in root system plants.

Polypores- wood destroyers. They affect both living plants and wooden structures and buildings. Polypores cause great damage to wooden buildings, especially in conditions of sufficient humidity. On affected trees, hard, hoof-shaped fruiting bodies form in the form of growths. The fungus penetrates the tree trunk and uses the contents of the cells, as a result of which the wood is destroyed.

Figure 17 - Polypore

Brownies mushrooms are active destroyers of wooden parts of buildings. The house fungus forms white cotton-like mycelium on the affected wood.

Rust mushroom- a pest of various cultivated plants (cereals, sunflowers, etc.). The fungus forms rusty spots on the affected parts of plants, as it contains droplets of rust-colored oil in the mycelium and spores.