Contribution of A. N. Leontiev to educational psychology. Leontyev Alexey Nikolaevich

Plan

Introduction

1. Creative path A.N. Leontyev

2. Teaching of A.N. Leontyev

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

Alexey Nikolaevich Leontiev (1903-1979) - Russian psychologist; Doctor of Psychological Sciences, professor, active member of the Academy of Sciences of the RSFSR (1950), Academy of Sciences of the USSR (1968), Honorary Member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences (1937), Honorary Doctor of the University of Paris (1968). Developed a general psychological theory of activity. Basic scientific works: “Development of Memory” (1931), “Restoration of Movement” together with A.V. Zaporozhets (1945), “Essay on the development of the psyche” (1947), “Needs and motives of activity” (1956), “Problems of the development of the psyche” (! 959, 1965), “On the historical approach to the study of the human psyche” (1959), “ Needs, motives and emotions" (1971), "Activity. Consciousness. Personality" (1975).

1. Creative path of A.N. Leontyev

Alexey Nikolaevich Leontiev made activity the subject and method of psychological research. He called the categories of activity of consciousness and personality as “the most important for building a consistent system of psychology as specific science about the generation, functioning and structure of the mental reflection of reality, which mediates the lives of individuals.” The general psychological theory of activity developed by Leontiev is the most important achievement of Soviet psychological science, and Leontiev himself is a major theorist, one of the creators of Soviet psychology. Based on theoretical and experimental research, he showed the explanatory power of activity for understanding central psychological problems: the essence and development of the psyche of consciousness, the functioning of various forms of mental reflection of the individual. In developing the problem of activity, Leontiev proceeded from the cultural-historical concept of the psyche of L.S. Vygotsky. He believed that the Marxist-Leninist methodology allows one to penetrate into the actual nature of the psyche and human consciousness, and in the theory of activity he saw the concretization of the Marxist-Leninist methodology in the field of psychology.

The origins of his research go back to the early 30s, when Leontiev headed a group of psychologists in Kharkov. Its members included A.V. Zaporozhets, L.I. Bozhovich, P.Ya. Galperin, P.I. Zinchenko, G.D. Lukov, V.I. Asnin. For them the problem became central practical activities and consciousness, which Leontiev considered “a necessary line of movement for psychological research.” The structure of children's activity, its means, purpose, motive and changes in the process of child development were studied.

At the end of the 30s. A.N. Leontyev addresses the problems of mental development: he explores the genesis of sensitivity, the development of the animal psyche. The result of this work was his doctoral dissertation “Development of the Psyche” (1946). Here the concept of staged development of the psyche in the process of evolution of the animal world was developed, based on changes in the nature of the connections of animals with environmental conditions in this process. Each new stage was considered as a transition to new conditions of existence and a step in increasing the complexity of the physical organization of animals. The stages in the development of the psyche identified by Leontiev - the elementary sensory psyche, the perceptual and the stages of intelligence - were further developed and specified in subsequent studies.

During the Great Patriotic War A.N. Leontyev, being the scientific director of an evacuation hospital in the Urals, led the work to restore lost gnostic sensitivity and movements after injuries through the special organization of meaningful objective activities of the wounded. Although this cycle of research pursued practical purposes, at the same time he led to a systematic study of the theoretical problem of the decisive role of activity and action in mental development.

In the articles of 1944-1947 devoted to the development of the psyche in ontogenesis, the problem of activity receives a special treatment. The concept of leading activity was formulated, which formed the basis for the study of periodization mental development child (A.B. Elkonin), game was studied as a leading activity in preschool age. A distinction was made between activity (and motive) and action (and goal), operations or methods of performing an action, and the dynamics of their relationships in the process of the child’s real life activity were described; the mechanism of shifting the motive to the goal was revealed as a mechanism of the process of birth of new activities; a distinction was introduced between “only understood motives” and motives that actually operate.” The transformation of an action into an operation was described. Using the example of educational activities, it was revealed psychological characteristics consciousness, in particular, the irreducibility of consciousness to knowledge of meaning to meaning is shown.

These studies formed the basis of the psychological teachings of A.N. Leontiev about the activity, its structure, its dynamics, its various forms and types, the final version of which is given in the work “Activity. Consciousness. Personality." According to this concept, the activity of the subject is the meaningful process in which the real connections of the subject with the objective world are realized and which mediates the connections between the influencing object and the subject. The activity is included in the system of social conditions. The main characteristic of activity is its objectivity - the activity is determined by the object, is subordinated, is likened to it: the objective world is “drawn into” the activity and is reflected in its image, including in the emotional-need sphere. The image is generated by objective activity. Thus, the psyche is considered as processes of subjective reflection of the objective world generated by material practical activity. The form of existence of an image in the individual consciousness is the meaning of language. Sensory tissue is also found in consciousness, i.e. sensory images and personal meanings that give consciousness a biased character. The study of all these components of consciousness is reflected in a number of publications.

The activity has a complex structure. activity and its corresponding motive, action and its corresponding goal, operations and corresponding methods of carrying out the action are distinguished, physiological mechanisms, implementers of activities. There are transitions and transformations between activity components. Analysis of the units forming activity led to the conclusion about the unity of the structure of external and internal activity in the form of which the mental exists. The transitions from external activity to internal activity (interiorization) and from internal activity to external activity (exteriorization) are shown. This is how the mystification of the psyche and consciousness was overcome.

Activity presupposes a subject of activity, a person. In the context of activity theory, the formations “individual” and “personality” are distinguished. Personality is the product of all human relations to the world, realized by the totality of all various activities. The main parameters of personality are the breadth of a person’s connections with the world, the degree of their hierarchy and their general structure. The approach to the study of personality from the position of activity theory is successfully developing in Soviet psychology.

2. Teaching of A.N. Leontyev

The main theoretical principles of the teachings of A.N. Leontieva:

· psychology is a specific science about the generation, functioning and structure of the mental reflection of reality, which mediates the lives of individuals;

· an objective criterion of the psyche is the ability of living organisms to respond to abiotic (or biologically neutral) influences;

Abiotic influences perform a signaling function in relation to biologically significant stimuli:

· irritability- is the ability of living organisms to respond to biologically significant influences, and sensitivity- this is the ability of organisms to reflect influences that are biologically neutral, but objectively related to biological properties;

· in the evolutionary development of the psyche, three stages are distinguished: 1) the stage of the elementary sensory psyche, 2) the stage of the perceptual psyche, 3) the stage of intelligence;

· the development of the animal psyche is a process of activity development;

The characteristics of animal activity are:

a) all animal activity is determined by biological models;

b) all animal activity is limited to visual specific situations;

c) the basis of animal behavior in all spheres of life, including language and communication, is formed by hereditary species programs. Learning from them is limited to the acquisition of individual experience, thanks to which species programs adapt to the specific conditions of the individual’s existence;

d) animals lack consolidation, accumulation and transmission of experience in material form, i.e. in the form of material culture;

· the activity of the subject is the meaningful process in which the real connections of the subject with the objective world are realized and which mediates the connections between the object and the subject influencing it;

· human activity is included in the system of social relations and conditions;

· the main characteristic of activity is its objectivity; activity is determined by the object, is subordinated to it, is likened to it;

· activity - this is the process of interaction of a living being with the surrounding world, allowing it to satisfy its vital needs;

· consciousness cannot be considered as closed in itself: it must be introduced into the activity of the subject;

behavior and activity cannot be considered in isolation from human consciousness ( the principle of unity of consciousness and behavior, consciousness and activity);

· activity is an active, purposeful process ( principle of activity activity);

· human actions are objective; they realize social goals ( the principle of the objectivity of human activity and the principle of its social conditionality).

A.N. Leontiev on the structure of activity

· human activity has a complex hierarchical structure and includes the following levels: I - level of special activities (or special types of activities); II - level of action; III - level of operations; IV - level of psychophysiological functions;

· human activity is inextricably linked with his needs and motives. Need - this is a state of a person, expressing his dependence on material and spiritual objects and conditions of existence that are outside the individual. In psychology, a person’s need is considered as the experience of need for what is necessary for the continuation of the life of his body and the development of his personality. Motive - this is a form of manifestation of a need, an incentive for a certain activity, the object for the sake of which this activity is carried out. Motive according to A.N. Leontiev - this is an objectified need;

· activity as a whole, it is a unit of human life that actively responds to a specific motive;

· one or another motive prompts a person to stage tasks, to identify the goal that, being presented in certain conditions, requires the performance of an action aimed at creating or obtaining an object that meets the requirements of the motive and satisfies the need. Target - this is the conceivable result of activity represented by him;

· action as an integral part of the activity corresponds to a perceived goal. Any activity is carried out in the form of actions or a chain of actions;

· activity and action are not strictly related to each other. The same activity can be implemented by different actions, and the same action can be included in different types of activity;

· an action, having a specific goal, is carried out in different ways depending on the conditions in which this action is performed. Methods of implementation. actions are called operations. Operations - these are transformed, automated actions that, as a rule, are not realized. For example: when a child learns to write letters, this writing of a letter is for him an action directed by the conscious goal of writing the letter correctly. But, having mastered this action, the child uses writing letters as a way to write words and, therefore, writing letters turns from an action into an operation;

· operations are of two types: the first arise from action through their automation, the second arise through adaptation, adaptation to environmental conditions, through direct imitation;

· a goal given under certain conditions is called in activity theory task ;

· the relationship between the structural and motivational components of activity is presented in Fig. 1.

A.N. Leontiev on the transformation of activities

· an activity can lose its motive and turn into an action, and an action, when its goal changes, can turn into an operation. In this case we talk about consolidation of units of activity . For example, when learning to drive a car, initially each operation (for example, changing gears) is formed as an action subordinate to a conscious goal. Subsequently, this action (shifting gears) is included in another action that has a complex operational composition, for example, in the action of changing the driving mode. Now shifting gears becomes one of the ways of its implementation - the operation that implements it; it ceases to be carried out as a special purposeful process: its goal is not highlighted. For the driver’s consciousness, shifting gears under normal conditions does not seem to exist at all;

· the results of the actions that make up the activity, under some conditions, turn out to be more significant than the motive of the activity in which they are included. Then action becomes activity. In this case we are talking about splitting up units of activity into smaller units. Thus, a child may complete homework on time initially only in order to go for a walk. But with systematic learning and receiving positive marks for his work, which increase his student “prestige,” his interest in the subjects he is studying awakens, and he now begins to prepare lessons in order to better understand the content of the material. The action of preparing lessons acquired its motive and became an activity. This general psychological mechanism for the development of the action of A.N. Leontyev named “shift of motive to goal” (or turning a goal into a motive). The essence of this mechanism is that a goal, previously driven to its implementation by some motive, acquires independent force over time, i.e. itself becomes a motive. The fragmentation of units of activity can also manifest itself in the transformation of operations into actions. For example, during a conversation a person cannot find the right word, i.e. what was an operation has become an action subordinated to a conscious goal.

A.N. Leontiev on the essence and structure of consciousness

· consciousness in its immediacy is the picture of the world that is revealed to the subject, in which he himself, his actions and states are included;

· initially consciousness exists only in the form of a mental image that reveals the world around it to the subject, while activity remains practical, external. At a later stage, activity also becomes the subject of consciousness: the actions of other people are realized, and through them own actions subject. Now they communicate using gestures or sound speech. This is a prerequisite for the generation of internal actions and operations that take place in the mind, on the “plane of consciousness.” Consciousness is an image becomes also consciousness - activity. It is in this fullness that consciousness begins to seem emancipated from external, sensory-practical activity, moreover, in control of it;

· another major change undergoes consciousness in the course of historical development. It lies in the destruction of the initial unity of the consciousness of the work collective (for example, a community) and the consciousness of the individuals forming it. At the same time, the psychological characteristics of individual consciousness can only be understood through their connections with the social relations in which the individual is involved;

· structure of consciousness includes: the sensory fabric of consciousness, meanings and personal meanings;

· sensual fabric consciousness forms a sensory composition of specific images of reality, actually perceived or emerging in memory, related to the future or only imaginary. These images differ in their modality, sensory tone, degree of clarity, greater or lesser stability, etc.;

· the special function of sensory images of consciousness is that they give reality to the conscious picture of the world that is revealed to the subject. It is thanks to the sensory content of consciousness that the world appears to the subject as existing not in consciousness, but outside his consciousness - as an objective “field” and the object of his activity;

· sensory images represent a universal form of mental reflection generated by the objective activity of the subject. However, in humans, sensory images acquire a new quality, namely, their meaning . Meanings are the most important “formatives” of human consciousness.

· values refract the world in the human mind. Although language is the carrier of meanings, language is not the demiurge of meanings. Behind linguistic meanings are hidden socially developed methods (operations) of action, in the process of which people change and cognize objective reality;

· the meanings represent the ideal form of existence of the objective world, its properties, connections and relationships revealed by cumulative social practice, transformed and folded into matter. Therefore, the values ​​themselves, i.e. in abstraction from their functioning in the individual consciousness, they are just as “non-psychological” as the socially cognized reality that lies behind them;

· one should distinguish between the perceived objective meaning and its meaning for the subject. In the latter case they talk about personal meaning. In other words personal meaning - this is the meaning of a particular phenomenon for a specific person. Personal meaning creates partiality of consciousness. Unlike meanings, personal meanings do not have their own “psychological existence”;

a person’s consciousness, like his activity itself, is not a certain sum of its constituent parts, i.e. it is not additive. This is not a plane, not even a container filled with images and processes. This is not a connection between its individual “units”, but internal movement its constituents, included in the general movement of activities that carry out the real life of the individual in society. Human activity constitutes the substance of his consciousness.

A.N. Leontyev on the relationship between consciousness and motives

· motives can be recognized, but, as a rule, they are not realized, i.e. all motives can be divided into two large classes - conscious and unconscious;

awareness of motives is a special activity, a special inner work;

· unconscious motives “manifest” in consciousness in special forms - in the form of emotions and in the form of personal meanings. Emotions are a reflection of the relationship between the result of an activity and its motive. If, from the point of view of motive, the activity is successful, positive emotions arise, if unsuccessful, negative emotions arise. Personal meaning is the experience of increased subjective significance of an object, action or event that finds itself in the field of action of the leading motive;

· human motives form a hierarchical system. Usually the hierarchical relationships of motives are not fully realized. They manifest themselves in situations of conflict of motives.

A.N. Leontyev on the relationship between internal and external activities

· internal activity has fundamentally the same structure as external activity, and differs from it only in the form of its occurrence ( the principle of unity of internal in external activities);

· internal activity arose from external practical activity through the process of internalization (or transfer of corresponding actions to the mental plane, i.e. their assimilation);

· internal actions are performed not with real objects, but with their images, and instead of a real product, a mental result is obtained;

· to successfully reproduce any action “in the mind,” you must master it in material terms and first obtain a real result. During internalization, external activity, although it does not change its fundamental structure, is greatly transformed and reduced, which allows it to be carried out much faster.

A.N. Leontyev about personality

· personality ≠ individual; this is a special quality that is acquired by an individual in society, in the totality of relationships, social in nature, in which the individual is involved;

· personality is a systemic and therefore supersensible quality , although the bearer of this quality is a completely sensual, bodily individual with all his innate and acquired properties. They, these properties, constitute only the conditions (prerequisites) for the formation and functioning of personality, as well as external conditions and life circumstances that befall the individual;

· from this point of view, the problem of personality forms a new psychological dimension:

a) other than the dimension in which research is conducted on certain mental processes, individual properties and states of a person;

b) this is a study of his place, position in the system of public relations, communications that open to him;

c) this is a study of what, for what and how a person uses what he received from birth and acquired by him;

· the anthropological properties of an individual act not as defining personality or included in its structure, but as genetically given conditions for the formation of personality and, at the same time, as something that determines not its psychological traits, but only forms and methods their manifestations;

· one is not born as a person, one becomes a person ;

· personality is a relatively late product of the socio-historical and ontogenetic development of man;

· personality is a special human formation;

· the real basis of a person’s personality is the totality of his social relations to the world, those relationships that are realized by his activities, more precisely, the totality of his diverse activities

· the formation of personality is the formation of a coherent system of personal meanings:

There are three main personality parameters:

1) the breadth of a person’s connections with the world;

2) the degree of their hierarchization and

3) their general structure;

· personality is born twice :

a) the first birth refers to preschool age and is marked by the establishment of the first hierarchical relationships between motives, the first subordination of immediate impulses to social norms;

b) the rebirth of personality begins in adolescence and is expressed in the emergence of the desire and ability to realize one’s motives, as well as to carry out active work on their subordination and resubordination. The rebirth of personality presupposes the presence of self-awareness.

Conclusion

Throughout Leontiev’s work runs the struggle against naturalistic concepts in human psychology, the idea of ​​the historical development of human consciousness. It was the subject of special analysis in articles of 1959-1960. Here, in the context of the problem of biological and social, the concepts of three types of experience are formulated - individual, species and social.

Based on the activity theory of A.N. Leontiev at Moscow University at the Faculty of Psychology, of which he was the founder and first dean, as well as in other institutions, research is carried out in general and in other branches of psychological science - social, children's, pedagogical, engineering, pathopsychology, zoopsychology, etc. In the early 60s 's A.N. Leontiev published a number of works on engineering psychology and ergonomics and thereby contributed to the emergence and formation of these branches of psychological science and the USSR. He owns research on educational psychology.

Thus, A.N. Leontiev made a huge contribution to the development of domestic and world psychology, and his ideas are being developed by scientists to this day.

Bibliography

1. Zhdan A.N. History of psychology: from Antiquity to the present day. - M., 2001.

2. Leontyev A.N. Activity. Consciousness. Personality. - M., 1975.

3. Leontyev A.N. Essays on the development of the psyche. - M., 1947.

4. Leontiev A.N., Zaporozhets A.V. Psychophysiological restoration of hand functions after injury. - M., 1945.

5. Leontyev A.N. On the theory of development of the child’s psyche: Psychological foundations of preschool play // A.N. Leontyev. Selected psychological works. T. 1. - M., 1983.

6. Leontyev A.N. Psychological issues of consciousness of teaching. - M., 1956.

7. Leontyev A.N. The concept of reflection and its significance for psychology // Questions of Philosophy. - 1966. - No. 12.

8. Petrovsky A.V. Psychology in Russia: XX centuries. - M., 2000.

9. Farbi K.E. Fundamentals of zoopsychology. - M., 1976.

Years of life: 1903 - 1979

Homeland: Moscow ( Russian empire)

Leontiev Alexey Nikolaevich - psychologist, full member of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the RSFSR (1950), Doctor of Pedagogical Sciences (in psychology) (1940), professor (1932).

In 1924 he graduated from the Faculty of Social Sciences of Moscow University. In 1924-31. conducted scientific and teaching work in Moscow (Institute of Psychology, Academy of Communist Education named after N.K. Krupskaya), in 1931-1935. - in Kharkov (Ukrainian Psychoneurological Academy, Pedagogical Institute). In 1936-1956 - at the Institute of Psychology of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences. During the Great Patriotic War, he was the head of an experimental hospital for the restoration of movements near Sverdlovsk. Since 1941 - professor at Moscow State University, since 1950 - head. Department of Psychology, since 1966 - Dean of the Faculty of Psychology at Moscow State University. Academician-secretary of the psychology department (1950-1957) and vice-president (1959-1961) of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the RSFSR.

Leontyev's professional development as a scientist occurred in the 1920s. under the influence of his direct teacher L. S. Vygotsky, who literally blew up traditional psychology with his methodological, theoretical and experimental works, which laid the foundations new psychology. With his works of the late 20s. Leontiev also contributed to the development of the cultural-historical approach to the formation of the human psyche created by Vygotsky.

However, already in the early 1930s. Leontiev, without breaking with the cultural-historical paradigm, begins to discuss with Vygotsky about the ways of its further development. If for Vygotsky the main subject of study was consciousness, then for Leontiev the analysis of human practice and life activity that forms consciousness seemed more important. In Leontiev’s works of the 1930s, published only posthumously, he sought to establish the idea of ​​the priority role of practice in the formation of the psyche and to understand the patterns of this formation in phylo- and ontogenesis. His doctoral dissertation was devoted to the evolution of the psyche in the animal world - from elementary irritability in protozoa to human consciousness. Leontyev contrasts the Cartesian opposition “external - internal” that was dominant in old psychology with the thesis about the unity of the structure of external and internal processes, introducing the categorical pair “process-image”. Leontyev develops the category of activity as a real (in the Hegelian sense) relationship of a person to the world, which acts as the basis of this unity. This relationship is not strictly individual, but is mediated by relationships with other people and socioculturally developed forms of practice.

The very structure of activity is sociogenic in nature. The idea that the formation of mental processes and functions occurs in activity and through activity served as the basis for numerous experimental studies of the development and formation of mental functions in ontogenesis, carried out by Leontiev and his colleagues in the 1930-60s. These studies laid the foundation for a number of innovative psychological and pedagogical concepts of developmental training and education, which have become widespread in the last decade. pedagogical practice.

The period of the late 30s - early 40s also included the development of Leontiev's well-known ideas about the structure and units of analysis of activity and consciousness. According to these ideas, three psychological levels are distinguished in the structure of activity: the activity itself (act of activity), distinguished by the criterion of its motive, actions identified by the criterion of focus on achieving conscious goals, and operations related to the conditions for carrying out the activity. For the analysis of consciousness, the dichotomy “meaning - personal meaning” introduced by Leontiev turned out to be fundamentally important, the first pole of which characterizes the “impersonal”, universal, socio-culturally acquired content of consciousness, and the second - its bias, subjectivity, determined by the unique individual experience and structure of motivation.

In the second half of the 1950-60s. Leontiev formulates a thesis about the systemic structure of the psyche and, following Vygotsky, develops on a new conceptual basis the principle of the historical development of mental functions. Practical and “internal” mental activity are not only united, but can move from one form to another. In fact, we're talking about O single activity, which can move from an external, expanded form to an internal, collapsed one (interiorization) and vice versa (exteriorization), can simultaneously include the actual mental and external (extracerebral) components.

In 1959, Leontiev’s book “Problems of Psychic Development” was published in its first edition, summarizing his works of the 1930s-50s, for which he was awarded the Lenin Prize.

In the 1960-70s. Leontiev continues to develop the “activity approach” or the “general psychological theory of activity.” He uses the apparatus of activity theory to analyze perception, thinking, mental reflection in the broad sense of the word. Considering them as active processes of an activity nature has made it possible to advance new level their understanding. In particular, Leontiev put forward and supported by empirical data the hypothesis of assimilation, which states that in order to construct sensory images, counter activity of the organs of perception is necessary.

At the end of the 1960s. Leontyev addresses the problem of personality, considering it within the framework unified system with activity and consciousness.

In 1975, Leontiev’s book “Activity. Consciousness. Personality” was published, in which he, summing up his works of the 60-70s, sets out the philosophical and methodological foundations of psychology, strives to “psychologically comprehend the categories most important for building an integral system psychology as a specific science about the generation, functioning and structure of the mental reflection of reality, which mediates the life of individuals." The category of activity is introduced by Leontyev in this book as a way to overcome the “postulate of immediacy” of the influence of external stimuli on the individual psyche, which found its most complete expression in the behaviorist formula “stimulus-response”. Activity acts as “a molar, non-additive unit of life of a bodily, material subject.” The key feature of activity is its objectivity, in the understanding of which Leontyev relies on the ideas of Hegel and the early Marx. Consciousness is what mediates and regulates the activity of the subject. It is multidimensional. In its structure, three main components are distinguished: sensory tissue, which serves as material for constructing a subjective image of the world, meaning, connecting individual consciousness with social experience or social memory, and personal meaning, connecting consciousness with real life subject.

The basis for the analysis of personality is also activity, or rather a system of activities that carry out various relationships of the subject with the world. Their hierarchy, or rather the hierarchy of motives or meanings, sets the structure of a person’s personality. In the 1970s Leontiev again addresses the problems of perception and mental reflection, but in a different way. The key concept for him becomes the concept of the image of the world, behind which stands, first of all, the idea of ​​​​the continuity of the perceived picture of reality and the images of individual objects. It is impossible to perceive a separate object without perceiving it in the holistic context of the image of the world. This context sets the perceptual hypotheses that guide the process of perception and recognition. This line of work has not yet received any completion. Leontiev created an extensive scientific school in psychology, his works had a significant influence on philosophers, educators, cultural scientists and representatives of other humanities.

Alexey Nikolaevich Leontyev was born in Moscow on February 5, 1903, his parents were ordinary employees. Naturally, they wanted to give Alexey a good education. Therefore, it is not surprising that Alexei Leontiev’s scientific activity dates back to his student years. In 1924 he graduated from the Faculty of Social Sciences of Moscow University, where G.I. Chelpanov read general course psychology. - Chelpanov headed the Institute of Psychology at Moscow State University in those years, leading a group of students for research work. It was within the walls of this university that Alexei Nikolaevich wrote the first scientific works- abstract “James's Doctrine of Ideomotor Acts” and work on Spencer. After graduating from the university, Alexey Nikolaevich became a graduate student at the Institute of Psychology. Here in 1924 A.N. met. Leontiev with L.S. Vygotsky and A.R. Luria. And soon their joint work began, since these three people with outstanding abilities quickly found a common language, and their union foreshadowed many useful things. But, unfortunately, this activity was interrupted. Lev Semenovich Vygotsky died. In such a short time collaboration The results of their activities were still impressive. The article “The Nature of Human Conflict” published by Leontiev and Luria was a stunning success, because It was there that the technique of “conjugate motor reactions” was presented and the idea of ​​mastering affect through speech output was born. Next, Leontyev personally developed the idea and embodied it in an article entitled “Experience in the structural analysis of chain associative series.” This article, published in the Russian-German Medical Journal, is based on the fact that associative reactions are determined by the semantic integrity that lies “behind” the associative series. But this particular development did not receive worthy recognition. He met his wife in 1929, when he turned 26 years old. After dating for a short time, they got married. His wife never interfered with the scientific activities of Alexei Leontyev; on the contrary, she helped and supported him in the most difficult moments. Leontiev's interests lay in the most diverse areas of psychology: from psychology creative activity to the experimental human perception of objectivity. And to the need to search for a completely new approach to the subject and content of psychophysiological research, now developing from common system psychological knowledge, Alexey Nikolaevich Leontyev applied many times. At the end of 1925, his famous “cultural-historical concept” was born, which was based on known formula L.S Vygotsky S-X-R , where S - incentive, motive; X - means; R is the result of the activity. Alexey Leontiev began to develop the ideas of this work, but at the Institute of Psychology, which at that time was busy with completely different issues, it was not possible to implement this undertaking. It is for this reason that A.N. Leontyev and A.R. Luria moved to the Academy of Communist Education, also working simultaneously at VGIK, at GITIS, at the clinic of G. I Rossolimo and at the Institute of Defectology. Around 1930, the Ukrainian Health Committee decided to organize a psychology sector at the Ukrainian Psychoneurological Institute, where A. R. Luria temporarily took over as head, and A.N. Leontyev - head of the department of child and genetic psychology. By this time, Alexey Nikolaevich had already left VGIK and AKV, and Vygotsky was forced to return to Moscow. Consequently, Leontiev, who later became the leader of the Ukrainian group of psychologists, took over all the work. Developing more and more new projects, Alexey Leontiev published the book “Activity. Consciousness. Personality”, where he defends his point of view that a person not only adjusts his activities to the external conditions of society, but these same conditions of society carry within themselves the motives and goals of his activities. In parallel, A.N. Leontyev begins work on the problem of mental development, namely, the study of extrapolation reflexes in animals. In 1936, Alexey Nikolaevich returned to the Institute of Psychology, where he worked before leaving for the psychology department of Moscow State University. At the institute he studies the issue of skin photosensitivity. At the same time, A. N. Leontyev teaches at VGIK and GITIS. He collaborates with SM Eisenstein and conducts experimental studies of the perception of films. In the pre-war years, he became the head of the psychology department at the Leningrad State Pedagogical Institute. N.K. Krupskaya. In the second half of the 1930s. Leontiev developed the following problems: a) phylogenetic development of the psyche, and in particular the genesis of sensitivity. b) “functional development” of the psyche, that is, the problem of the formation and functioning of activity, c) the problem of consciousness These problems were well covered in the doctoral dissertation of A. N. Leontiev “Development of the psyche,” defended at the Leningrad State Pedagogical Institute named after. A. I. Herzen in 1940. Only part of the results of his research were included in the dissertation. But this work of Leontiev was not fully preserved. The dissertation contained articles devoted, in particular, to memory, perception, emotions, will and volition. There is also a chapter called “Activity-action-operation”, where the basic conceptual system of activity psychological theory is given. According to Leontyev, activity is inseparable from the object of its need, and in order to master this object it is necessary to focus on such of its properties that in themselves are vitally indifferent, but are closely related to other vital properties of objects, i.e. “signal” about the presence or absence of the latter. Thus, due to the fact that the animal’s activity acquires an objective character, a form of reflection specific to the psyche arises in rudimentary form - the reflection of an object that has properties that are vitally significant, and properties that signal them. Sensitivity A.N. Leontiev defines, respectively, as irritability in relation to to these kinds of influences that are correlated by the body with other influences, i.e. which orient a living being in the objective content of its activity, performing a signaling function. Leontyev undertakes research in order to test the hypothesis he put forward. First in Kharkov, and then in Moscow, using the experimental methodology he developed, he reproduces in artificially created conditions the process of transforming imperceptible stimuli into perceptible ones (the process of a person developing a sensation of color on the skin of his hand). Thus, A.N. Leontiev, for the first time in the history of world psychology, made an attempt to determine the objective criterion of the elementary psyche, taking into account the sources of its origin in the process of interaction of a living being with environment. Summing up the data accumulated in the field of zoopsychology and based on his own achievements, Leontyev developed new concept the mental development of animals as the development of a mental reflection of reality, caused by changes in the conditions of existence and the nature of the process of animal activity at different stages of phylogenesis: the stages of sensory, perceptual and intellectual psyche. This area of ​​work by A.N. Leontyev was directly related to the development of the issue of activity and the problem of consciousness. While developing the problem of personality, Alexey Leontyev adhered to two directions of his activity. He worked on problems of the psychology of art. In his opinion, there is nothing where a person could realize himself as holistically and comprehensively as in art. Unfortunately, today it is almost impossible to find his works on the psychology of art, although during his lifetime Alexey Nikolaevich worked a lot on this topic. In 1966, Alexey Nikolaevich Leontiev finally moved to the Faculty of Psychology of Moscow University, from that time until last day During his life, Leontyev was the permanent dean and head of the department of general psychology. Alexey Nikolaevich left our world on January 21, 1979; It is impossible to overestimate his scientific contribution, because it was he who managed to force many to reconsider their views and approach the subject and content of psychophysiological research from a completely different angle.

LEONTIEV Alexey Nikolaevich

(1903 1979) - Russian psychologist, philosopher and teacher. Specialist in the field of general and experimental psychology, engineering and cognitive psychology, problems of methodology and philosophy of psychology. Doctor of Psychological Sciences (1940), Professor (1941). D. member APN RSFSR (1950), APN USSR (1968), in the 1950s. was academic secretary and vice-president of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the RSFSR. Medal winner K.D. Ushinsky (1953), Lenin Prize (1963), Lomonosov Prize, 1st degree (1976), honorable mention. Dr. foreign high fur boots, including the Sorbonne. Graduated from the Faculty of Social Sciences of Moscow State University (1924) and began his professional activity at the Moscow Institute of Psychology and other Moscow scientific institutions (1924-1930). In 1930 he moved to Kharkov, where he headed the sector of the All-Ukrainian Psychoneurological Academy (until 1932 - the Ukrainian Psychoneurological Institute) and the department of the Kharkov Pedagogical Institute that (1930-1935). Returning to Moscow in 1936, he worked at the Moscow Institute of Psychology and at the same time at the Leningrad State Pedagogical Institute named after. N.K. Krupskaya. In 1940 he defended his doctorate. diss: Genesis of sensitivity and main stages of development of the psyche, in 1941 received the title of professor. In 1942-43 L. - scientific adviser evacuation hospital in the Urals. Since 1943 - head. laboratory, then the department of child psychology at the Institute of Psychology, and since 1949 - head. Department of Psychology, Moscow State University. From 1966 to 1979 - Dean of the Faculty of Psychology of Moscow State University and Head. Department of General Psychology. The leitmotif of L.'s scientific creativity throughout his life was the development of the philosophical and methodological foundations of psychological science. L.'s professional development as a scientist occurred in the 1920s. under the influence of his direct teacher L.S. Vygotsky, who literally blew up traditional psychology with his methodological, theoretical and experimental works, which laid the foundations of a new psychology. With his works of the late 20s. L. also contributed to the development of the cultural-historical approach to the formation of the human psyche created by Vygotsky. However, already in the early 1930s. L., without breaking with the cultural-historical paradigm, begins to discuss with Vygotsky about the ways of its further development. If for Vygotsky the main subject of study was consciousness, then L. considered the analysis of human practice and life activity that forms consciousness to be more important. In L.'s works of the 30s, published only posthumously, he sought to establish the idea of ​​the priority role of practice in the formation of the psyche and to understand the patterns of this formation in phylogeny and ontogenesis. His doc. dis. was devoted to the evolution of the psyche in the animal world - from elementary irritability in protozoa to human consciousness. L. contrasts the Cartesian opposition between external and internal, which was dominant in old psychology, with the thesis about the unity of the structure of external and internal processes, introducing the categorical pair process-image. L. develops the category of activity as a real (in the Hegelian sense) relationship of a person to the world, which acts as the basis of this unity. This relationship is not strictly individual, but is mediated by relationships with other people and socioculturally developed forms of practice. The very structure of activity is sociogenic in nature. The idea that the formation of mental processes and functions occurs in activity and through activity served as the basis for numerous experimental studies of the development and formation of mental functions in ontogenesis, carried out by L. and his colleagues in the 1930-60s. These studies laid the foundation for a number of innovative psychological and pedagogical concepts of developmental training and education, which have become widespread in pedagogical practice in the last decade. The period of the late 30s and early 40s also saw the development of well-known L. ideas about the structure and units of analysis of activity and consciousness. According to these ideas, three psychological levels are distinguished in the structure of activity: the activity itself (act of activity), distinguished by the criterion of its motive, actions identified by the criterion of focus on achieving conscious goals, and operations related to the conditions for carrying out the activity. For the analysis of consciousness, the dichotomy introduced by L. turned out to be fundamentally important - personal meaning, the first pole of which characterizes the impersonal, universal, socioculturally acquired content of consciousness, and the second - its bias, subjectivity, due to the unique individual experience and structure of motivation. In the second half of the 1950-60s. L. formulates a thesis about the systemic structure of the psyche and, following Vygotsky, develops on a new conceptual basis the principle of the historical development of mental functions. Practical and internal mental activity are not only united, but can move from one form to another. In essence, we are talking about a single activity that can move from an external, expanded form to an internal, collapsed one (interiorization) and vice versa (exteriorization), and can simultaneously include the actual mental and external (extracerebral) components. In 1959, the first edition of L.'s book Problems of Mental Development was published, summarizing his work of the 1930-50s, for which he was awarded the Lenin Prize. In the 1960-70s. L. continues to develop the activity approach or the general psychological theory of activity. He uses the apparatus of activity theory to analyze perception, thinking, mental reflection in the broad sense of the word. Considering them as active processes of an activity nature has allowed us to advance to a new level of understanding. In particular, L. put forward and supported by empirical data the hypothesis of assimilation, which states that in order to construct sensory images, counter activity of the organs of perception is necessary. At the end of the 1960s. L. addresses the problem of personality, considering it within the framework of a single system with activity and consciousness. In 1975, the book L. Activities was published. Consciousness. Personality, in which he, summing up his works of the 60-70s, sets out the philosophical, methodological foundations of psychology, strives to psychologically comprehend the categories that are most important for building an integral system of psychology as a specific science about the generation, functioning and structure of mental reflection reality that mediates the lives of individuals. The category of activity is introduced by L. in this book as a way to overcome the postulate of the immediacy of the influence of external stimuli on the individual psyche, which found its most complete expression in the behaviorist formula stimulus-response. Activity acts as a molar, non-additive unit of life of a bodily, material subject. The key feature of activity is its objectivity, in the understanding of which L. is based on the ideas of Hegel and the early Marx. Consciousness is what mediates and regulates the activity of the subject. It is multidimensional. In its structure, three main components are distinguished: sensory tissue, which serves as material for constructing a subjective image of the world, meaning, connecting individual consciousness with social experience or social memory, and personal meaning, connecting consciousness with the real life of the subject. The basis for the analysis of personality is also activity, or rather a system of activities that carry out various relationships of the subject with the world. Their hierarchy, or rather the hierarchy of motives or meanings, sets the structure of a person’s personality. In the 1970s L. again turns to the problems of perception and mental reflection, but in a different way. The key concept for him becomes the concept of the image of the world, behind which stands, first of all, the idea of ​​​​the continuity of the perceived picture of reality and the images of individual objects. It is impossible to perceive a separate object without perceiving it in the holistic context of the image of the world. This context sets the perceptual hypotheses that guide the process of perception and recognition. This line of work has not yet received any completion. L. created an extensive scientific school in psychology, his works had a noticeable influence on philosophers, educators, cultural scientists and representatives of other humanities. In 1986, the International Society for Research in Activity Theory was created. L. is also the author of the books: Development of memory, M., 1931; Restoration of movement, co-author, M., 1945; Selected psychological works, in 2 vols., M., 1983; Philosophy of Psychology, M., 1994. A.A. Leontiev, D.A. Leontyev

Alexey Nikolaevich Leontiev (1903–1979), one of the founders and leader of Russian psychological science in the most difficult times for science, is by no means one of the “forgotten” authors: despite the ambiguous attitude towards his theoretical heritage, which is largely due to his acceptance Marxism as the methodological basis of psychological science, his name and ideas live and actively work not only in the works of his direct students and the students of his students, but throughout the entire scientific community. Moreover, he is one of the few creators scientific schools, whose students did not limit themselves to repeating and concretizing the teacher’s ideas, but in many respects moved far forward, to new theoretical frontiers.

A. N. Leontyev is an outstanding Russian psychologist of the modern era, who at one time worked at Saburova’s dacha - a former Saburian who at one time created the famous Kharkov group of psychologists and is the author of the general psychological theory of activity. Alexey Nikolaevich is widely known as recognized leader Soviet psychology of the 40s–70s of the XX century. He was the initiator of the creation of the Society of Psychologists of the USSR. His services to Russian science are great and varied.

A. N. Leontiev developed a cultural-historical theory in the 20s of the last century, together with L. S. Vygotsky and A. R. Luria, and conducted a series of experimental studies revealing the mechanism of formation of higher mental functions ( voluntary attention, memory) as a process of “growing”, internalization of external forms of tool-mediated actions into internal ones mental processes. Experimental and theoretical works are devoted to problems of mental development (its genesis, biological evolution and socio-historical development, development of the child’s psyche), problems of engineering psychology, as well as the psychology of perception, thinking and other issues.

Based on the ideas of cultural-historical theory, A. N. Leontyev put forward and developed in detail the general psychological theory of objective activity, which is one of the influential and new theoretical directions in domestic and world psychology. The content of this concept is closely related to Alexey Nikolaevich’s analysis of the emergence and development of the psyche in phylogenesis, the emergence of consciousness in anthropogenesis, mental development in ontogenesis, the structure of activity and consciousness, the motivational and semantic sphere of personality, methodology and history of psychology, revealing the mechanisms of the origin of consciousness and its role in the regulation of human activity. Based on the scheme of activity structure proposed by A. N. Leontiev (activity - action - operation - psychophysiological functions), correlated with the structure of the motivational sphere (motive - goal - condition), a wide range of mental phenomena (perception, thinking, memory, attention and others) was studied ), among which Special attention was devoted to the analysis of consciousness (singling out meaning, sense and “sensual tissue” as its main components) and personality (interpretation of its basic structure as a hierarchy of motivational and semantic formations). The concept of Alexey Nikolaevich’s activities was developed in various industries psychology (general, child, pedagogical, medical and social), in turn enriching it with new data. The position formulated by A. N. Leontyev on leading activity and its determining influence on the development of the child’s psyche served as the basis for the concept of periodization of children’s mental development put forward by D. B. Elkonin. Psychology was considered by A. N. Leontiev as the science of “the generation, functioning and structure of the mental reflection of reality in the processes of activity.”

Alexey Nikolaevich Leontyev graduated from the Faculty of Social Sciences of Moscow University (1924), Doctor of Psychology (1941), Academician of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the USSR (1950), laureate of the Lenin Prize (1963). After graduating from the university, he worked at the Institute of Psychology (1924–1927), the Academy of Communist Education named after. N.K. Krupskaya (1927–1931), All-Ukrainian Psychoneurological Academy and Kharkov Pedagogical Institute (1931–1935), All-Union Institute of Experimental Medicine, Higher Communist Institute of Education (1935–1936), Institute of Psychology (1936–1963). In 1942–1945 he headed the scientific work of the Experimental Rehabilitation Hospital near Sverdlovsk. Since 1941 - professor at Moscow State University (MSU), since 1950 - head of the department of psychology, since 1963 - head of the psychology department of the Faculty of Philosophy, and since 1966 - dean of the Faculty of Psychology at Moscow State University. Academician-secretary of the psychology department (1950–1957) and vice-president (1959–1961) of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the RSFSR.

A. N. Leontiev was born in Moscow on February 5, 1903, his parents were ordinary employees. His father, Nikolai Vladimirovich, was by birth a tradesman of the Pankratyevskaya Sloboda in Moscow, and by profession a financial worker specializing in film distribution. His mother, Alexandra Alekseevna, came from the family of a Volga steamboat operator, that is, a merchant family. Naturally, they wanted to give Alexey a good education. Therefore, it is not surprising that Alexei Leontiev’s scientific activity dates back to his student years. In 1924, he graduated from the Faculty of Social Sciences of Moscow University, where G. I. Chelpanov taught a general course in psychology.

G.I. Chelpanov headed the Institute of Psychology at Moscow State University in those years, leading a group of students for research work. It was within the walls of this university that Alexei Nikolaevich wrote his first scientific works - the abstract “James' Doctrine of Ideomotor Acts” and a work on G. Spencer. After graduating from the university, Alexey Nikolaevich became a graduate student at the Institute of Psychology. It was here in 1924 that A. N. Leontiev met with L. S. Vygotsky and A. R. Luria, after which their joint work soon began, since these three people with outstanding abilities quickly found a common language, and their the union foreshadowed many useful things. But, unfortunately, this activity was interrupted after the death of L. S. Vygotsky. In such a short period of joint work, the results of their activities were still impressive. The article “The Nature of Human Conflict” published by A. N. Leontiev and A. R. Luria was a stunning success, because it was in it that the technique of “conjugate motor reactions” was presented and the idea of ​​mastering affect through speech output was born. Next, Alexey Nikolaevich personally developed the idea and embodied it in an article entitled “Experience in the structural analysis of chain associative series.” This article, published in the Russian-German Medical Journal, is based on the fact that associative reactions are determined by the semantic integrity that lies “behind” the associative series. But this particular development did not receive worthy recognition.

He met his wife in 1929, when he was 26 years old. After dating for a short time, they got married. His wife never interfered with his scientific activities; on the contrary, she helped and supported him in the most difficult moments. A. N. Leontiev’s interests lay in a variety of areas of psychology: from the psychology of creative activity to experimental human perception of objectivity. And Alexey Nikolaevich addressed the need to find a completely new approach to the subject and content of psychophysiological research, which is now developing from the general system of psychological knowledge.

At the end of 1925, his famous “cultural-historical concept” was born, which was based on the famous formula of L. S. Vygotsky S–X–R, where S is the stimulus, motive; X - means; R is the result of the activity. A. N. Leontyev began to develop the ideas of this work, but at the Institute of Psychology, which at that time was busy with completely different issues, it was not possible to implement this undertaking. It was for this reason that A. N. Leontyev and A. R. Luria moved to the Academy of Communist Education, also working simultaneously at VGIK, GITIS, at the G. I. Rossolimo clinic and at the Institute of Defectology.

And one more thing that influenced the future fate of A. N. Leontyev: in the late 20s - early 30s, scientific and pedagogical institutions where he collaborated began to close one after another, sometimes with a political scandal. For example, a “basement” about VGIK appeared in two central newspapers at once under the threatening title “Nest of Idealists and Trotskyists.” One of the consequences of this article was the forced departure of Alexei Nikolaevich from VGIK in 1930. The stronghold of L. S. Vygotsky’s group - the Academy of Communist Education - also fell out of favor in 1930, its faculty of social sciences was declared “Trotskyist”, and in 1931 it was “exiled” to Leningrad and renamed an institute. In any case, A. N. Leontiev was dismissed from it on September 1, 1931. There was nothing to think about working at the Institute of Psychology, although after the departure of K. N. Kornilov, the ideas of L. S. Vygotsky and his school were used in the new scientific program of the institute. However, according to documents, in December 1932, Alexey Nikolaevich was still listed there as a “1st category research assistant.” Since 1931, psychology has not been taught at all at Moscow State University. So A. N. Leontyev had nowhere to work - at one time he even served in the Supreme Council of the National Economy of the USSR as a “techprop consultant” (technical propaganda).

And all three - L. S. Vygotsky, A. R. Luria and A. N. Leontiev - began to look for a place of work where they could continue the begun cycle of research. They were lucky: all three (as well as L.I. Bozhovich, A.V. Zaporozhets and M.S. Lebedinsky) - at the end of 1930, an invitation came from Kharkov, which was then the capital of the Ukrainian SSR, from the Ukrainian People's Commissar of Health S.I. . Kantorovich. The People's Commissariat of Health of the Ukrainian SSR decided to create a psychology sector at the Ukrainian Psychoneurological Institute (later, in 1932, it was transformed into the All-Ukrainian Psychoneurological Academy, which was located, as you know, at Saburova Dacha) (“psychoneurological sector”). L. S. Vygotsky, recalled Alexey Nikolaevich, participated in the negotiations. The post of head of the sector was offered to A. R. Luria, the post of head of the department of experimental psychology (later it was called the department of general and genetic psychology) - to A. N. Leontiev. Officially, Alexey Nikolaevich was hired on October 15, 1931. In November 1931, L. S. Vygotsky was appointed head of the department of genetic psychology at the State Institute of Personnel Training of the People's Commissariat of Health of the Ukrainian SSR. However, unlike A.R. Luria and A.N. Leontiev, he did not move to Kharkov, although he was constantly there - he gave reports, gave lectures, took exams as a part-time student at the medical institute (where he entered the same 1931). However, in his family, moving to Kharkov was discussed more than once and there was even a question of exchanging a Moscow apartment for an apartment in Kharkov. Why the move did not take place is unknown. According to E. A. Luria (in her memoirs about her father), the fact was that L. S. Vygotsky and A. R. Luria did not have a good relationship with the leadership of the All-Ukrainian Psychoneurological Academy. But Alexey Nikolaevich said that L. S. Vygotsky was offered excellent conditions for moving, and the reasons for L. S. Vygotsky’s refusal of the invitation remained incomprehensible to him.

At the end of 1931, A. R. Luria, A. N. Leontyev, L. I. Bozhovich and A. V. Zaporozhets moved to Kharkov and settled in a large apartment, which Professor L. L. Rokhlin rented for the Moscow commune, where some for a time they really all lived in it together.

A. R. Luria visited Kharkov on visits for three years, until 1934 - according to his own recollections, he “cruised” between Kharkov and Moscow (and L. S. Vygotsky - between Kharkov, Leningrad and Moscow). L.I. Bozhovich also did not stay long in Kharkov, who soon moved to neighboring Poltava, to the Pedagogical Institute, although she continued to constantly collaborate with the “Kharkovites”. From time to time, L. S. Vygotsky also visited her in Poltava.

A. N. Leontyev remained in Kharkov for almost 5 years. He not only headed the department and was a full member of the All-Ukrainian Psychoneurological Academy, but - after the final departure of A. R. Luria - took over from him the leadership of the entire sector of psychology (even earlier, in 1932, he was the deputy head of the sector). Consequently, taking all the work upon himself, Alexey Nikolaevich later became the leader of the famous Kharkov group of psychologists. In addition, he was the head of the department of psychology of the Medical-Pedagogical Institute of the People's Commissariat of Health of Ukraine, and later the head of the department of psychology of the Kharkov Pedagogical Institute and the Scientific Research Institute of Pedagogy (even later - the All-Ukrainian Institute scientific pedagogy). Among the places of work of Alexey Nikolaevich in Kharkov was the rather exotic position of professor at the Kharkov Palace of Pioneers and Octobrists named after. P. P. Postysheva. “In the same year, I was approved by the Central Qualification Commission of the NKZ of the Ukrainian SSR with the rank of professor, and with the introduction of the law on degrees and titles, I was granted the rank of full member of the Institute by the Central Qualification Commission of the NKZ of the Ukrainian SSR and with the rank of professor by the Central Qualification Commission of the NKP of the Ukrainian SSR,” - reports A. N. Leontiev in his published autobiography (A. N. Leontiev, 1999, p. 366).

In addition to A.V. Zaporozhets and T.O. Ginevskaya, Kharkov psychologists began to group around Alexei Nikolaevich. These were P. Ya. Galperin, a group of graduate students from the Pedagogical Institute and the Scientific Research Institute of Pedagogy - P. I. Zinchenko, V. I. Asnin, G. D. Lukov, then K. E. Khomenko, V. V. Mistyuk, L. I. Kotlyarova, D. M. Dubovis-Aranovskaya, E. V. Gordon, G. V. Mazurenko, O. M. Kontsevaya, A. N. Rosenblum, who died early, T. I. Titarenko, I. G. Dimanshtein, F. V. Bassin and others. Thus was born the Kharkov group of psychologists, which worthily entered the history of Soviet and world psychology.

“The years of my work in Ukraine,” writes A. N. Leontyev in his autobiography, “... amounted to... a period of revision of previous positions and independent work on general psychological problems, which continued to follow the line of predominantly experimental research. This was facilitated by the special conditions and tasks that confronted me at that time: it was necessary to organize new team from very young employees and qualify them in the process of deployment of work. This is how the Kharkov group of psychologists was created... During this period, I and under my leadership carried out a number of experimental studies, starting from new theoretical positions in connection with the problem of the psychology of activity.”

And it is absolutely no coincidence that the program of specific experimental research of the Kharkov group of psychologists has all its roots in philosophical and methodological issues. Let us present here very briefly the characteristic given by A. N. Leontiev himself main stages of research by the Kharkov group of psychologists.

First cycle of research(1932–1933) dealt with the “image-process” problem. Here the following were studied: the relationship between speech and practical intelligence (L. I. Bozhovich), the discursive thinking of a preschooler and the development of meanings (A. V. Zaporozhets, L. I. Bozhovich) and mastery of a concept in the learning process (A. N. Leontyev). The beginning of P. I. Zinchenko’s experiments on forgetting and the development of the problem of “perception as action” by A. V. Zaporozhets date back to this time. The result of this cycle was, firstly, the position that in transfer meaning and generalization are not only revealed, but also formed, and that transfer is not only an adequate method for studying generalization (L. S. Vygotsky), but also the process of generalization itself . Communication is a particular condition of transfer. Secondly, the provision of two different types transfer (application of practical action in a situation and discursive process) and accordingly - different levels generalizations. The image “lags behind” the process (experiments with the separation of meaning and operation).

Second cycle of research(1934–1935) pursued the following goal: to bring the processes under study “outside” and trace them in external activities. Here, first of all, the problem of a tool arises as an object in which a socially developed technique is fixed. It differs from the means (subordinate to “natural psychology”). This includes the famous experiments of P. Ya. Galperin, described in his dissertation in 1935, the works of P. I. Zinchenko and V. I. Asnin, A. V. Zaporozhets and L. I. Bozhovich. The general result of this cycle of research was the conclusion: “to master a tool, as well as a meaning, means to master a process, an operation. Whether this happens in communication or in “invention” is indifferent” (A. N. Leontyev). What determines the operation itself? Firstly, the objective properties of the object. But, secondly, how an object appears depends on the person’s attitude, on the process as a whole. “And this process is life.”

main idea third cycle of research(1935–1936) was as follows: “The key to the morphology of consciousness lies in the morphology of activity.” This includes the works of V. I. Asnin, T. O. Ginevskaya, V. V. Mistyuk, K. E. Khomenko and others, but primarily G. D. Lukov, who showed in an experiment the relationship between theoretical and practical activity based on the material of awareness during the game. In V.I. Asnin’s research, the idea of ​​the structure of activity as a whole arises (the dependence of the effectiveness of solving a problem on the goal, motivation, and nature of the entire activity).

Fourth cycle of research(1936–1940) proceeded from the premise: “all internal processes are modeled on external activities and have the same structure.” There were a lot of studies here, first of all, P. I. Zinchenko on involuntary memorization (memory as an action), A. V. Zaporozhets on perception as an action, G. D. Lukova on the game (experimental “dilution” of meaning and meaning) and a whole series others; It is interesting that at this time the object of study of Kharkov residents largely became the perception of art.

What was the personal role of A. N. Leontyev in the work of the Kharkov group as a whole?

We should start with the fact that he was constantly in Kharkov only until the end of 1934 - beginning of 1935, after which he returned to Moscow and visited Kharkov only from time to time (for example, a letter to D. B. Elkonin dated June 26, 1936 was written from Kharkov ). But even after this, he remained, as they say in social psychology, both an “instrumental” and “expressive” leader of the group. It is to him that the merit of the methodological and general theoretical justification of all the experimental activities of the Kharkov residents belongs. This in no way belittles the role of other members of the group, for example A.V. Zaporozhets or P.I. Zinchenko; “Kharkov” psychology was created through collective efforts, but A. N. Leontiev was always at the center of the activities of Kharkov residents. They all admitted this and indicated this in their (unfortunately, very few) publications.

Until now, we have not mentioned another area of ​​research by the Kharkov group of psychologists, primarily A. N. Leontiev himself - the study of the genesis of sensitivity and the psyche in general in the animal world and the stages of its development. Obviously, this direction was closely connected with others. And when in the Kharkov laboratory of A. N. Leontyev, as he said shortly before his death, “daphnia, fish and cats” began to appear and the then young (as well as all members of the Kharkov group) Philip Veniaminovich Bassin began to “drive daphnia”, this the study of extrapolation reflexes fit well into a unified methodological concept of mental development. By the way, many years later it was extrapolation reflexes that made the Belgian psychologist A. Michotte famous; but his work proceeded independently, and A. Michotte most likely learned about the work of A. N. Leontiev only after their personal meeting, in the 50s of the last century).

During the Kharkov period, in 1933–1936, Aleksey Nikolaevich developed (theoretically and experimentally) primarily a hypothesis about the fundamental genesis of sensitivity as the ability of elementary sensation. It was not published then and was only presented orally - in reports given in Kharkov and Moscow. The first publication on this topic appeared only in 1944 (A. N. Leontyev, 1944). In parallel, he dealt with the problem of periodization of the phylogenetic development of the psyche in the animal world, the problem of the relationship between innate and acquired experience. And in 1936, in parallel, in Kharkov (together with V.I. Asnin) and in Moscow (together with N.B. Poznanskaya) a systematic experimental study was carried out on the formation of sensitivity to an inadequate stimulus - in other words, “seeing through the skin”... But all this was one and perhaps not the most important part of the gigantic project undertaken by A. N. Leontiev in the second half of the 30s.

Developing more and more new projects, Alexey Nikolaevich published the book “Activity. Consciousness. Personality”, where he defends his point of view that a person not only adjusts his activities to the external conditions of society, but these same conditions of society carry within themselves the motives and goals of his activities. In parallel, A. N. Leontyev begins work on the problem of mental development, namely, the study of extrapolation reflexes in animals. In 1936, Alexey Nikolaevich returned to the Institute of Psychology, where he worked before leaving for the psychology department of Moscow State University. At the institute he studies the issue of skin photosensitivity. At the same time, A. N. Leontyev teaches at VGIK and GITIS. He collaborates with S. M. Eisenstein and conducts experimental studies of the perception of films. In the pre-war years, he became the head of the psychology department at the Leningrad State Pedagogical Institute. N.K. Krupskaya. In the second half of the 1930s, Aleksey Nikolaevich developed the following problems: a) phylogenetic development of the psyche, and in particular the genesis of sensitivity; b) “functional development” of the psyche, i.e. the problem of the formation and functioning of activity; c) the problem of consciousness.

These problems were well covered in A. N. Leontiev’s doctoral dissertation “Development of the psyche,” defended at the Leningrad State Pedagogical Institute named after. A.I. Herzen in 1940. Only part of the results of his research were included in the dissertation, but, unfortunately, this work of A. N. Leontiev has not been preserved in its entirety. The dissertation contained articles devoted, in particular, to memory, perception, emotions, will and volition. There is also a chapter called “Activity-action-operation”, where the basic conceptual system of activity-based psychological theory is given. According to Aleksey Nikolaevich, activity is inseparable from the object of its need, and in order to master this object it is necessary to focus on such properties of it that in themselves are vitally indifferent, but are closely related to other vital properties of objects, i.e., they “signal” the presence or the absence of the latter. Thus, due to the fact that the animal’s activity acquires an objective character, a form of reflection specific to the psyche arises in rudimentary form - the reflection of an object that has properties that are vitally significant and properties that signal them. A. N. Leontyev defines sensitivity, respectively, as irritability in relation to this kind of influences that are correlated by the body with other influences, that is, which orient a living being in the objective content of its activity, performing a signaling function. Alexey Nikolaevich undertakes research in order to test the hypothesis he put forward. First in Kharkov, and then in Moscow, using the experimental methodology he developed, he reproduces in artificially created conditions the process of transforming imperceptible stimuli into perceptible ones (the process of a person developing a sensation of color on the skin of his hand). Thus, A. N. Leontiev, for the first time in the history of world psychology, made an attempt to determine the objective criterion of the elementary psyche, taking into account the sources of its origin in the process of interaction of a living being with the environment. Summarizing the data accumulated in the field of zoopsychology, and based on his own achievements, Alexey Nikolaevich developed a new concept of the mental development of animals as the development of a mental reflection of reality, caused by changes in the conditions of existence and the nature of the process of animal activity at different stages of phylogenesis: the stages of sensory, perceptual and intellectual psyche. This direction of A. N. Leontiev’s work was directly related to the development of the issue of activity and the problem of consciousness. While developing the problem of personality, Alexey Nikolaevich adhered to two directions of his activity. He worked on problems of the psychology of art. In his opinion, there is nothing where a person could realize himself as holistically and comprehensively as in art. Unfortunately, today it is almost impossible to find his works on the psychology of art, although during his lifetime Alexey Nikolaevich worked a lot on this topic. In 1966, A. N. Leontyev finally moved to the Faculty of Psychology of Moscow State University, from that time until the last day of his life, Alexey Nikolaevich was the permanent dean and head of the department of general psychology at this university. A. N. Leontyev left our world on January 21, 1979; It is impossible to overestimate his scientific contribution, because it was he who managed to force many to reconsider their views and approach the subject and content of psychophysiological research from a completely different angle.

The most important works of A. N. Leontyev are: “The Development of Memory” (1931); “Restoration of Movement” (co-author, 1945); “Essay on the Development of the Psyche” (1947); " Psychological development child in preschool age"(1948); “Sensation, perception and attention of children of primary school age” (1950); “Mental Development of the Child” (1950); “Human Psychology and Technical Progress” (co-author, 1962); "Needs, Motives and Emotions" (1973); "Activity. Consciousness. Personality" (1977); “Problems of psychic development” (1981); “Category of activity in modern psychology” (1979); “Selected psychological works. - In 2 volumes" (1983); “Discussion about problems of activity” (co-author, 1990) and others.

However, the publication and analysis of his scientific heritage are far from complete. The huge archive of A. N. Leontyev, kept in his family, has still only been partially dismantled. After the death of Alexei Nikolaevich, many of his unpublished manuscripts and transcripts were published and continue to be published; There are already four books alone, fully or partially based on archival materials, which is comparable to the number of his (different) books during his lifetime! Working with other biographical sources that shed light on the vicissitudes of his life’s path takes even more time and is much more painstaking than working with manuscripts. Moreover, the Internet provides optimal opportunities for working with materials from scientific archives, allowing them to be made available at any time. minimum costs archival materials that are usually interesting to a limited circle of readers.

E. E. Sokolova rightly emphasizes that modern young psychologists do not value the traditions left by our predecessors and, in particular, A. N. Leontiev. Participants in a historical and psychological interview, sharing memories of Alexei Nikolaevich, spoke about the methodological carelessness of many modern works, about their pragmatic orientation instead of deep theoretical and methodological validity, about the lack of criticality in perception foreign experience and ignoring the experience of domestic psychology, the devaluation of moral values ​​in practical psychological work, etc. According to E. E. Sokolova, this kind of nihilism of the younger generation of psychologists is explained not only by the significantly changed sociocultural conditions of work of psychologists in our country, but also by insufficient knowledge and teaching the “living” history of psychology. Therefore, collecting materials from the “oral history” of psychological science in our country remains a very urgent task both for historians of psychology themselves and for all those who are sure that in psychology it is necessary to “work” proactively.

A. N. Leontyev was a laureate of the Lenin Prize (1963) for the book “Problems of Psychic Development” (1959; 3rd edition, 1972), an honorary doctor of the University of Paris (1968); honorary member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences (1973). Awarded the Order of Lenin, 2 other orders, as well as medals.

Academician A. N. Leontyev did a lot for the development of domestic psychology, to establish a worthy place for Soviet psychology in the world psychological community. It is the merit of Alexei Nikolaevich that in large universities in our country, psychology departments at philosophical faculties were transformed into independent psychological faculties; that the Higher Attestation Commission separated psychological sciences (consisting of 12 disciplines) into an independent group from the general composition of pedagogical sciences; that psychology was introduced into the nomenclature of the USSR Academy of Sciences and the Department of Philosophy and Law of this Academy was renamed the Department of Philosophy, Psychology and Law; that the Psychology Sector of the Institute of Philosophy of the USSR Academy of Sciences was transformed into an independent Institute of Psychology; that a new journal “Bulletin of Psychology” was created at the Faculty of Psychology of Moscow State University.

Thanks to his efforts and under his chairmanship, in 1966 a XVIII International congress of scientific psychology, which, according to foreign psychologists, was one of the best organized congresses of the International Association.

It should be noted that from the very day of the death of A. N. Leontyev and until now there have been and are people who seem to have set themselves the life goal of discrediting the personality and activities of Alexei Nikolaevich, diligently creating a certain halo around him. For this unimportant purpose, some individual facts of his biography are artificially selected and tendentiously interpreted. And such facts as the selfless struggle of A. N. Leontyev for the fate of his direct and even indirect students or his demonstrative refusal to dismiss M. K. Mamardashvili from the faculty; like the “cover” that Alexey Nikolaevich created with his considerable weight for the quiet work of the faculty - let’s refer to the memoirs of S. G. Yakobson, which says: “With the advent of the psychology department, I got out of this unpleasant Soviet reality, with its denunciations, personal affairs and the rest of the journey into a completely different world - the world of eternal values, the pursuit of truth, into the world of completely different people”; how almost unbelievable Soviet time the act when, on the initiative of A. N. Leontyev, the doctoral dissertation of the secretary of the faculty party bureau was failed - all these and many other facts that paint the true image of Alexei Nikolaevich as a crystal honest, deeply decent and extremely principled person and leader are simply ignored.

Disciples and associates of A. N. Leontyev, who knew him well, will confirm that this difficult person, who knew how to be intolerant, tough and irreconcilable, but, when necessary for the job, flexible, tolerant and compromising, was exactly as they say about him they say - honest, brave, decent and principled - and that is how he remained in our common memory of him.

His former student Fyodor Efimovich Vasilyuk says in his published memoirs about A. N. Leontiev: “... We intuitively felt his extraordinary scale, both professional and human... He was a man from some other world, the World of Great People...”. P. Ya. Galperin rightly emphasizes that in the history of psychology his name will be in the first rank of its outstanding builders.

Thus, Academician Alexey Nikolaevich Leontyev made a significant scientific contribution to the development of domestic psychology, enriching it with major achievements. His high integrity as a citizen and scientist, the breadth of scientific interests and originality of thinking, conscientiousness and perseverance in his work are best example for young people who have decided to devote themselves to science. Without a doubt, a creative biography and scientific achievements Alexey Nikolaevich are of great interest for domestic psychological and psychiatric science and need further thorough research, especially with regard to the work of the Kharkov group of psychologists.

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Alexey Nikolaevich Leontiev (1903-1979) - an outstanding Soviet psychologist, full member of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the RSFSR, Doctor of Pedagogical Sciences, professor.

Together with L. S. Vygotsky and A. R. Luria, he developed a cultural-historical theory, conducted a series of experimental studies revealing the mechanism of formation of higher mental functions (voluntary attention, memory) as a process of “growing”, interiorization of external forms of instrumentally mediated actions into internal mental processes. Experimental and theoretical works are devoted to problems of mental development, problems of engineering psychology, as well as the psychology of perception, thinking, etc.

He put forward a general psychological theory of activity - a new direction in psychological science. Based on the scheme of activity structure proposed by Leontiev, a wide range of mental functions (perception, thinking, memory, attention) were studied.

From the editors.

INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY

Lecture 1. Mental phenomena and life processes.

Lecture 2. History of the development of views on mental phenomena.

Lecture 3. The formation of psychology as an independent science.

Lecture 4. Crisis in psychology. Prerequisites for the emergence of objective psychology.

Lecture 5. Projects for creating a Marxist-oriented psychology: K.N. Kornilov and L.S. Vygotsky.

Lecture 6. The problem of the emergence of the psyche. Irritability and sensitivity.

Lecture 7. Objective activity as the basis of the psyche.

Lecture 8. Possibilities for studying the psyche of animals.

Lecture 9. Species-specific and individually acquired behavior. Stage of sensory psyche.

Lecture 10. Development of animal activity. Perceptual psyche and intelligence.

Lecture 11. Forms of mental reflection in humans.

Lecture 12. Features of the structure of human activity.

Lecture 13. Language and consciousness.

Lecture 14. Structure of consciousness: sensory tissue, meaning, personal meaning.

PERCEPTION

Lecture 15. General idea of ​​perception.

Lecture 16. Sensations and reality. Sense organs.

Lecture 17. Development and functioning of sensory systems.

Lecture 18. Image of the world.

Lecture 19. Perception as an activity.

Lecture 20. Tactile perception.

Lecture 21. Visual perception.

Lecture 22. Eye movements and visual perception.

Lecture 24. Auditory perception.

Lecture 25. Pitch hearing.

ATTENTION AND MEMORY

Lecture 26. Phenomenology of attention.

Lecture 27. Involuntary and voluntary attention.

Lecture 28. Mechanisms of attention.

Lecture 29. N.N. Lange’s theory of attention.

Lecture 30. Types and phenomena of memory.

Lecture 31. Answers to questions.

Lecture 32. Studies of voluntary memorization.

Lecture 33. Indirect memorization.

Lecture 34. Memory and activity.

THINKING AND SPEECH

Lecture 35. Types of thinking. Thinking and sensory cognition.

Lecture 36. Thinking and activity.

Lecture 37. Genesis of human thinking.

Lecture 38. Thinking and speech.

Lecture 39. Types and transformations of speech.

Lecture 40. Concept. Development of generalizations in ontogenesis.

Lecture 41. The problem of goal setting.

Lecture 42. Creative thinking.

MOTIVATION AND PERSONALITY

Lecture 43. Needs: biological aspect.

Lecture 44. Fundamental needs. Production needs.

Lecture 45. The problem of classification of needs. Motives.

Lecture 46. Motivation and goal setting.

Lecture 47. The meaning-forming function of motive.

Lecture 48. Emotional phenomena. Affects.

Lecture 49. Expression of emotions. Emotions, moods, feelings.

Lecture 50. The problem of will.

Lecture 51. Individual and personality.

Lecture 52. Some issues of personality formation.

Notes

O T R E D A C T O R O V

The book offered to the reader's attention contains unique material - previously unpublished text of oral lectures on general psychology, given by the largest Russian psychologist of the 20th century, Alexei Nikolaevich Leontiev (1903-1979). Lectures were given at the Faculty of Psychology of Moscow State University. M.V.Lomonosov in 1973-1975 They present all the main sections of the traditional course of general psychology for students of psychological faculties and departments: “Introduction to psychology” (lectures 1 - 14), “Psychology of cognitive processes” (lectures 15-42), “Personality psychology” (lectures 43-52 ).

In preparing the lectures for publication, we encountered a number of difficulties. Some lectures survived only in typewritten form with some omissions, which could not always be filled in by context, others existed only in the form of tape recordings, and the quality of these recordings did not always allow the text to be fully identified. If the text of the lectures was preserved in two versions - tape-recorded and typewritten - these versions could be so different from each other that special work was required to harmonize both texts. We stood in front of difficult choice measures of text editing, oscillating between the need, on the one hand, to preserve the authentic author’s word as much as possible, and, on the other hand, to make the text of lectures as clear and understandable as possible. Considering that this book is valuable not only and not so much as a historical document, but as tutorial For today's students (and not only students), we have clarified the content of statements (where this content is obvious to us), eliminated repetitions and some deviations to the side, and added links to some literary sources. Otherwise, the text was subject to minimal editing during publication, and the features of A. N. Leontiev’s oral speech were deliberately preserved. Necessary editorial comments on the text are given in angle brackets (< >). We have also given a short title for each lecture according to its main content to make it easier for the reader to navigate the book.

As a result, we managed to collect almost all of A.N. Leontiev’s lectures on the course of general psychology. They, in our opinion, are of interest to readers because they provide an opportunity to become familiar with the activity-based interpretation of the problems and patterns of general psychology, as they say, “first hand.” And the peculiar construction of oral speech, dialogues with the audience and other “rough edges” give the text special persuasiveness.

The main technical work on decoding the tape recordings was carried out by D.G. Polovnev and A.I. Chekalina, to whom the editors express their gratitude. The institute deserves special gratitude " Open Society“, without financial support the preparation of the publication would have lasted for many years.

D.A. Leontiev,